scholarly journals Energy Availability in Male and Female Elite Wheelchair Athletes over Seven Consecutive Training Days

Nutrients ◽  
2020 ◽  
Vol 12 (11) ◽  
pp. 3262 ◽  
Author(s):  
Thomas Egger ◽  
Joelle Leonie Flueck
Keyword(s):  
Energy Expenditure ◽  
Energy Intake ◽  
Female Athletes ◽  
Resting Energy Expenditure ◽  
Energy Availability ◽  
Male Athletes ◽  
Wheelchair Athletes ◽  
Energy Needs ◽  
Exercise Energy Expenditure ◽  
And Training

Background: Low energy availability (LEA) is a major problem as athletes often restrict their energy intake. It has been shown that LEA occurs often in female and endurance athletes and in athletes from weight-sensitive or aesthetic sports. The purpose of this study was to investigate energy availability (EA) in elite wheelchair athletes. Methods: Fourteen elite wheelchair athletes (8 males; 6 females) participated. Data were collected using a weighed seven-day food and training diary to estimate energy intake and exercise energy expenditure. Resting energy expenditure and body composition were measured, whereas energy balance (EB) was calculated. Results: Measured over 7 days, EA was significantly different (36.1 ± 6.7 kcal kg−1 FFM day−1) in male compared to female (25.1 ± 7.1 kcal kg−1 FFM day−1) athletes (p < 0.001). From all analyzed days, LEA occurred in 73% of the days in female athletes and in 30% of the days in male athletes. EB was positive in male athletes (+169.1 ± 304.5 kcal) and negative (−288.9 ± 304.8 kcal) in female athletes. Conclusions: A higher prevalence of LEA was found in female compared to male athletes. A higher energy intake would be recommended to meet energy needs and to maximize training adaptation.

A Review of Nonpharmacological Strategies in the Treatment of Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport

2020 ◽  
pp. 1-8
Author(s):  
Megan A. Kuikman ◽  
Margo Mountjoy ◽  
Trent Stellingwerff ◽  
Jamie F. Burr
Keyword(s):  
Energy Expenditure ◽  
Energy Intake ◽  
Female Athletes ◽  
Relative Energy ◽  
Performance Outcomes ◽  
Fat Free Mass ◽  
Energy Availability ◽  
Energy Deficiency ◽  
Exercise Energy Expenditure ◽  
And Performance

Relative energy deficiency in sport (RED-S) can result in negative health and performance outcomes in both male and female athletes. The underlying etiology of RED-S is low energy availability (LEA), which occurs when there is insufficient dietary energy intake to meet exercise energy expenditure, corrected for fat-free mass, leaving inadequate energy available to ensure homeostasis and adequate energy turnover (optimize normal bodily functions to positively impact health), but also optimizing recovery, training adaptations, and performance. As such, treatment of RED-S involves increasing energy intake and/or decreasing exercise energy expenditure to address the underlying LEA. Clinically, however, the time burden and methodological errors associated with the quantification of energy intake, exercise energy expenditure, and fat-free mass to assess energy availability in free-living conditions make it difficult for the practitioner to implement in everyday practice. Furthermore, interpretation is complicated by the lack of validated energy availability thresholds, which can result in compromised health and performance outcomes in male and female athletes across various stages of maturation, ethnic races, and different types of sports. This narrative review focuses on pragmatic nonpharmacological strategies in the treatment of RED-S, featuring factors such as low carbohydrate availability, within-day prolonged periods of LEA, insufficient intake of bone-building nutrients, lack of mechanical bone stress, and/or psychogenic stress. This includes the implementation of strategies that address exacerbating factors of LEA, as well as novel treatment methods and underlying mechanisms of action, while highlighting areas of further research.

scholarly journals Decreased energy availability during training overload is associated with non-functional overreaching and suppressed ovarian function in female runners

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Karine Schaal ◽  
Marta D VanLoan ◽  
Christophe Hausswirth ◽  
Gretchen A Casazza
Keyword(s):  
Energy Intake ◽  
Female Athletes ◽  
Ovarian Function ◽  
Recovery Period ◽  
Poor Performance ◽  
Performance Outcomes ◽  
Energy Availability ◽  
Exercise Energy Expenditure ◽  
Ad Libitum ◽  
Plasma Leptin

Low energy availability (EA) suppresses many physiological processes, including ovarian function in female athletes. Low EA could also predispose athletes to develop a state of overreaching. This study compared the changes in ad libitum energy intake (EI), exercise energy expenditure (ExEE), and EA among runners completing a training overload (TO) phase. We tested the hypothesis that runners becoming overreached would show decreased EA, suppressed ovarian function and plasma leptin, compared to well-adapted (WA) runners. After 1 menstrual cycle (baseline), 16 eumenorrheic runners performed 4 weeks of TO followed by a 2-week recovery (131±3% and 63±6% of baseline running volume respectively). Seven-day ExEE, EI, running performance (RUNPERF) and plasma [leptin] were assessed for each phase. Salivary [estradiol] was measured daily. Urinary [luteinizing hormone] tests confirmed ovulation. Nine runners adapted positively to TO (WA,ΔRUNPERF: +4±2%); seven were non-functionally overreached (NFOR, ΔRUNPERF –9±2%) as RUNPERF remained suppressed after the recovery period. WA increased EI during TO, maintaining their baseline EA despite a large increase in ExEE (ΔEA=+1.9±1.3 kcal.kgFFM-1.d-1, P=0.17). By contrast, NFOR showed no change in EI, leading to decreased EA (ΔEA=-5.6±2.1 kcal.kgFFM-1.d-1, P=0.04). [Leptin]b, mid-cycle and luteal [estradiol]s decreased in NFOR only. Contrasting with WA, NFOR failed to maintain baseline EA during TO, resulting in poor performance outcomes and suppressed ovarian function.NCT02224976. NOVELTY BULLETS: -Runners adapting positively to training overload (TO) increased ad libitum energy intake, maintaining baseline EA and ovarian function through TO. -By contrast, NFOR runners failed to increase energy intake, showing suppressed EA and ovarian function during TO.

scholarly journals Relationship between energy availability, energy conservation and cognitive restraint with performance measures in male endurance athletes

2021 ◽  
Vol 18 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Iva Jurov ◽  
Nicola Keay ◽  
Vedran Hadžić ◽  
Darjan Spudić ◽  
Samo Rauter
Keyword(s):  
Energy Expenditure ◽  
Energy Conservation ◽  
Resting Energy Expenditure ◽  
Psychological Evaluation ◽  
Endurance Athletes ◽  
Energy Availability ◽  
Male Athletes ◽  
Cognitive Restraint ◽  
Disordered Eating Patterns ◽  
Resting Energy

Abstract Background Low energy availability in male athletes has gained a lot of attention in recent years, but direct evidence of its effects on health and performance is lacking. The aim of this research was to objectively measure energy availability (EA) in healthy male endurance athletes without pre-existing relative energy deficiency signs during pre-race season. Methods Twelve trained endurance athletes (performance level 3, 4, and 5) participated in the cross-sectional controlled laboratory study. Fat-free mass, exercise energy expenditure, and energy intake were measured to calculate EA. Resting energy expenditure was measured and estimated to assess energy conservation. Three specific performance tests were used to assess endurance, agility, and explosive strength performance. For psychological evaluation, the Three Factor Eating Questionnaire and a short Well-being questionnaire were completed. Results Mean EA was 29.5 kcal/kg FFM/day. The majority (66.6%) had EA under the threshold for low EA in females. Critical cognitive restraint (≥13) was reported by 75% of participants. There were no differences in performance, blood values, or psychological evaluation when subjects were divided into two groups divided by EA = 30 kcal/kg FFM/day. Cognitive restraint was negatively associated with measured resting energy expenditure and energy conservation (r = −.578, p = .025 and r = −.549, p = .032, respectively). Conclusions The mean EA measured in this study supports the theory that the threshold for low EA in endurance male athletes might be under the threshold for females. In addition, we confirmed cognitive restraint could be useful for early detection of energy conservation. The high cognitive restraint as measured in our sample stressed the need of eating behavior screening in endurance athletes in order to reduce risk of any disordered eating patterns.

Energy Availability of Female Varsity Volleyball Players

2013 ◽  
Vol 23 (1) ◽  
pp. 24-30 ◽  
Author(s):  
Sarah J. Woodruff ◽  
Renee D. Meloche
Keyword(s):  
Energy Expenditure ◽  
High Performance ◽  
Female Athletes ◽  
Fat Free Mass ◽  
Medium Size ◽  
Energy Availability ◽  
Air Displacement Plethysmography ◽  
Bod Pod ◽  
Total Daily Energy Expenditure ◽  
Exercise Energy Expenditure

Female athletes should aim to achieve energy balance to maintain health and have a high performance output. The purpose of this study was to investigate energy availability (EA) among members of a medium-size Canadian Interuniversity Sport women’s volleyball team and to describe exercise energy expenditure (ExEE) during practices, game warm-ups, and games. Total daily energy expenditure was assessed over 7 d using the Bodymedia Sensewear Mini armband, while energy intake (EI) was measured with dietary food logs. Body composition was assessed using air-displacement plethysmography (Bod Pod). Energy availability was calculated using the equation EA = (EIkcal – ExEEkcal)/kg fat-free mass (FFM). Participants consumed 3,435 (± 1,172) kcal/day and expended 3479 (± 604) kcal/day. Mean EA was 42.5 kcal · kg FFM-1 · d-1 across all 7 d, and 2 participants fell below the 30-kcal · kg FFM-1 · d-1 threshold. Furthermore, participants expended 511 (± 216), 402 (± 50), and 848 (± 155) kcal during practices, game warm-ups, and games, respectively. Overall, the participants were relatively weight stable and should be encouraged to continue fueling their exercise and high ExEE needs with appropriate nutritional strategies.

scholarly journals Current Predictive Resting Metabolic Rate Equations Are Not Sufficient to Determine Proper Resting Energy Expenditure in Olympic Young Adult National Team Athletes

2021 ◽  
Vol 12 ◽  
Author(s):  
Aydın Balci ◽  
Ebru Arslanoğlu Badem ◽  
Ayfer Ezgi Yılmaz ◽  
Aslı Devrim-Lanpir ◽  
Bihter Akınoğlu ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Energy Expenditure ◽  
Metabolic Rate ◽  
Female Athletes ◽  
Resting Metabolic Rate ◽  
Resting Energy Expenditure ◽  
Mean Difference ◽  
Fat Free Mass ◽  
Male Athletes ◽  
National Team ◽  
Resting Energy

Predictive resting metabolic rate (RMR) equations are widely used to determine athletes’ resting energy expenditure (REE). However, it remains unclear whether these predictive RMR equations accurately predict REE in the athletic populations. The purpose of the study was to compare 12 prediction equations (Harris-Benedict, Mifflin, Schofield, Cunningham, Owen, Liu’s, De Lorenzo) with measured RMR in Turkish national team athletes and sedentary controls. A total of 97 participants, 49 athletes (24 females, 25 males), and 48 sedentary (28 females, 20 males), were recruited from Turkey National Olympic Teams at the Ministry of Youth and Sports. RMR was measured using a Fitmate GS (Cosmed, Italy). The results of each 12 prediction formulas were compared with the measured RMR using paired t-test. The Bland-Altman plot was performed to determine the mean bias and limits of agreement between measured and predicted RMRs. Stratification according to sex, the measured RMR was greater in athletes compared to controls. The closest equation to the RMR measured by Fitmate GS was the Harris-Benedict equation in male athletes (mean difference -8.9 (SD 257.5) kcal/day), and Liu’s equation [mean difference -16.7 (SD 195.0) kcal/day] in female athletes. However, the intra-class coefficient (ICC) results indicated that all equations, including Harris-Benedict for male athletes (ICC = 0.524) and Liu’s for female athletes (ICC = 0.575), had a moderate reliability compared to the measured RMR. In sedentary subjects, the closest equation to the measured RMR is the Nelson equation in males, with the lowest RMSE value of 118 kcal/day [mean difference: 10.1 (SD 117.2) kJ/day], whereas, in females, all equations differ significantly from the measured RMR. While Nelson (ICC = 0.790) had good and Owen (ICC = 0.722) and Mifflin (calculated using fat-free mass) (ICC = 0.700) had moderate reliability in males, all predictive equations showed poor reliability in females. The results indicate that the predictive RMR equations failed to accurately predict RMR levels in the participants. Therefore, it may not suitable to use them in determining total energy expenditure.

scholarly journals Measuring Energy Availability and Energy Conservation in Endurance Athletes in the Pre-Race Period

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Iva Jurov ◽  
Nicola Keay ◽  
Vedran Hadžić ◽  
Darjan Spudić ◽  
Samo Rauter
Keyword(s):  
Energy Expenditure ◽  
Energy Conservation ◽  
Resting Energy Expenditure ◽  
Psychological Evaluation ◽  
Endurance Athletes ◽  
Energy Availability ◽  
Male Athletes ◽  
Cognitive Restriction ◽  
Disordered Eating Patterns ◽  
Resting Energy

Abstract Background: Low energy availability in male athletes has gained a lot of attention in the last years, but direct evidence of its effects on health and performance is lacking. Aim of this research was to objectively measure energy availability (EA) in healthy male endurance athletes without pre-existing relative energy deficiency signs during pre-race season. Methods: 12 trained endurance athletes (performance level 3, 4 and 5) participated in the cross-sectional controlled laboratory study. Fat free mass, exercise energy expenditure and energy intake were measured to calculate EA. Resting energy expenditure was measured and estimated to assess energy conservation. Three specific performance tests were used to assess endurance, agility and explosive strength performance. For psychological evaluation, the Three Factor Eating Questionnaire and a short Well-being questionnaire were completed.Results: Mean EA was 29.5 kcal/kg FFM/day. The majority (66.6%) had EA under the threshold for low EA in females. Critical cognitive restriction (≥13) was reported by 75% of participants. There were no differences in performance, blood values or psychological evaluation when subjects were divided into two groups divided by EA=30kcal/kg FFM/day. Cognitive restriction was negatively associated with measured resting energy expenditure and energy conservation (r=-.578, p=.025 and r=-.549, p=.032, respectively).Conclusions: The mean EA measured in this study supports the theory that the threshold for low EA in endurance male athletes might be under the threshold for females. In addition, we confirmed cognitive restriction could be useful for early detection of energy conservation. The high cognitive restriction as measured in our sample stressed the need of eating behavior screening in endurance athletes in order to reduce risk of any disordered eating patterns.

scholarly journals Plasma leptin in female athletes: relationship with body fat, reproductive, nutritional, and endocrine factors

2000 ◽  
Vol 88 (6) ◽  
pp. 2037-2044 ◽  
Author(s):  
Farah S. L. Thong ◽  
Cyndy McLean ◽  
Terry E. Graham
Keyword(s):  
Energy Expenditure ◽  
Energy Intake ◽  
Sex Hormones ◽  
Female Athletes ◽  
Caloric Intake ◽  
Reproductive Function ◽  
Reproductive Axis ◽  
Exercise Energy Expenditure ◽  
Metabolic Signal ◽  
Plasma Leptin

The relationship of leptin to thyroid and sex hormones, insulin, energy intake, exercise energy expenditure, and reproductive function was assessed in 39 female athletes. They comprised elite athletes who were either amenorrheic (EAA; n = 5) or cyclic (ECA; n = 8) and recreationally active women who were either cyclic (RCA; n= 13) or taking oral contraceptives (ROC; n = 13). Leptin was significantly lower in EAA (1.7 ± 0.2 ng/ml) than in ECA (2.9 ± 0.3 ng/ml), RCA (5.8 ± 0.9 ng/ml), and ROC (7.4 ± 1.3 ng/ml). Hypoleptinemia in EAA was paralleled by reductions ( P < 0.05) in caloric intake, insulin, estradiol, and thyroid hormones. Leptin increased by 40–46% ( P < 0.05) in the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle in RCA and ECA. Plasma leptin was similar in the placebo and active pill phases in ROC despite a significant increase in ethinylestradiol. Leptin correlated ( P < 0.05) with triiodothyronine and insulin but not with estrogen, energy intake, or exercise energy expenditure. These data suggest that in female athletes 1) leptin may be a metabolic signal that provides a link between adipose tissue, energy availability, and the reproductive axis and 2) sex hormones do not directly regulate leptin secretion.

Case Study: Impact of Inter- and Intra-Day Energy Parameters on Bone Health, Menstrual Function, and Hormones in an Elite Junior Female Triathlete

2016 ◽  
Vol 26 (4) ◽  
pp. 363-369 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jason D. Vescovi ◽  
Jaci L. VanHeest
Keyword(s):  
Bone Mineral Density ◽  
Energy Expenditure ◽  
Energy Intake ◽  
Bone Mineral ◽  
Bone Health ◽  
Energy Availability ◽  
Mineral Density ◽  
Exercise Energy Expenditure ◽  
Health Related

This observational case study examined the association of inter- and intraday energy intake and exercise energy expenditure with bone health, menstrual status and hematological factors in a female triathlete. The study spanned 7 months whereby energy intake and exercise energy expenditure were monitored three times (13 d); 16 blood samples were taken, urinary hormones were assessed for 3 months, and bone mineral density was measured twice. Energy availability tended to be sustained below 30 kcal/kg FFM/d and intraday energy intake patterns were often “back-loaded” with approximately 46% of energy consumed after 6 p.m. Most triiodothyronine values were low (1.1–1.2nmol/L) and supportive of reduced energy availability. The athlete had suppressed estradiol (105.1 ± 71.7pmol/L) and progesterone (1.79 ±1.19nmol/L) concentrations as well as urinary sex-steroid metabolites during the entire monitoring period. Lumbar spine (L1-L4) bone mineral density was low (age-matched Z-score −1.4 to −1.5). Despite these health related maladies the athlete was able to perform typical weekly training loads (swim: 30–40 km, bike: 120–300 km, run 45–70 km) and was competitive as indicated by her continued improvement in ITU World Ranking during and beyond the assessment period. There is a delicate balance between health and performance that can become blurred especially for endurance athletes. Education (athletes, coaches, parents) and continued monitoring of specific indicators will enable evidence-based recommendations to be provided and help reduced the risk of health related issues while maximizing performance gains. Future research needs to longitudinally examine how performance on standardized tests in each discipline (e.g., 800-m swim, 20-km time trial, 5-km run) is impacted when aspects of the female athlete triad are present.

scholarly journals Comparison of Energy Expenditure Observed between Scheduled Activities in Collegiate Team-Sport Female Athletes

Sports ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 9 (4) ◽  
pp. 50
Author(s):  
Jessica M. Moon ◽  
Hannah A. Zabriskie ◽  
Patrick S. Harty ◽  
Bradley S. Currier ◽  
Julia C. Blumkaitis ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Energy Expenditure ◽  
Female Athletes ◽  
Team Sport ◽  
Activity Level ◽  
Ncaa Division Ii ◽  
Activity Monitors ◽  
Energy Needs ◽  
The Difference ◽  
Academic Year ◽  
Activity Energy

Energy needs of female team-sport athletes are poorly understood with no evidence highlighting differences present between scheduled activities. The purpose of this study was to examine the difference in energy expenditure between NCAA Division II female basketball (BBALL) and lacrosse (LAX) athletes during different scheduled team activities. Female BBALL (n = 13; 19.8 ± 1.3 yrs; 173.9 ± 13.6 cm; 74.6 ± 9.1kg; 27.1 ± 3.2%fat) and LAX (n = 20; 20.4 ± 1.8yrs; 168.4 ± 6.6cm; 68.8 ± 8.9kg; 27.9 ± 3.1%fat) athletes were outfitted with heart rate and activity monitors during four consecutive days on five different occasions (20 days total) across an entire academic year to assess differences in total daily activity energy expenditure (TDEE), activity energy expenditure (AEE), and physical activity level (PAL). Data were categorized by type of scheduled daily activities: Practice, Game, Conditioning, or Off. Independent of day type, TDEE, AEE, and PAL levels were greater (p < 0.05) in BBALL athletes. For each sport, TDEE, AEE, and PAL were significantly different (p < 0.05) between classified activity days. BBALL and LAX athletes experienced higher values on game days for TDEE, AEE, and PAL, with the lowest values experienced on off days. In conclusion, calculated levels of TDEE, AEE, and PAL in female collegiate BBALL and LAX athletes were determined to be different, irrespective of the scheduled activity.

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