scholarly journals Особенности калмыцкого письменного языка XIX в. (на материале калмыцких писем И. Я. Шмидта (1800–1810 гг.))

Author(s):  
Evgeny V. Bembeev ◽  

Introduction. The article examines some phonetic and morphological features of the Kalmyk language traced in written monuments published by the famous Mongolists John Krueger and Robert Service in the ‘Kalmyk Old-Manuscript Documents of Isaac Jacob Schmidt’ (2002). The book presents facsimiles, transcriptions and translations of epistolary documents into English, which cover the period from 1800 to 1810. Most of the letters — 54 out of 80 — reflect correspondence with the Baga Dorbet Princes Tundutovs, including 18 from Erdeni Taisha, 27 from Tsebek, and 9 more from Jamba Taisha. These written monuments are kept in the archives of the Moravian Brothers Community in Herrnhut (Unitas Fratrum, Eng. ‘United Brothers’) in folder R.15.R.IIa No. 5. Goals. The paper aims at investigating some phonetic and morphological features of the then Kalmyk language discovered in the published letters. Results. The language of I. H. Schmidt’s letters reflects the stage in the development of the Kalmyk language in the late 18th – early 19th centuries characterized by a natural convergence of the phonetic and grammatical norms inherent to the written literary language and living folk speech. The materials of the texts show that the beginning of the 19th century witnessed a process of transition of the combinations -ou and -öü into the long vowels [u:] and [ü:], respectively. It is also noted that in words where the diphthong -iu is historically (traditionally) used, e.g., in the word alčiur — in letters it is transmitted as alčuur, which meets the requirements of live pronunciation. In the language of letters of I. J. Schmidt, when it comes to construct the imperative form of the 2nd person plural, several cases of using the colloquial formant -tan are recorded, instead of the traditional indicator -qtün / -qtun. The past participle, which is historically formed with -qsan / -qsen affixes, also approaches colloquial forms, therefore, there are frequent cases of using -san / -sen forms, which are closer to modern Kalmyk (e.g., xara torγon irsen bolxuna ‘if the black silk arrives’). Linguistic processes associated with the reduction of short vowels of non-first syllables of a word, reduction of morphological formants, etc., are reflected to a greater or lesser extent in the text of the studied monument. Conclusions. Thus, the language of I. Ya. Schmidt’s letters reflects the stage of development of the Kalmyk language at the end of the 18th – beginning of the 19th centuries characterized by a natural convergence of phonetic and grammatical norms of the written literary language and living folk speech.

Virittäjä ◽  
2018 ◽  
Vol 122 (2) ◽  
Author(s):  
Petri Lauerma

Artikkelissa tarkastellaan Martti Rapolan (1891–1972) sanakokoelmaa. Rapola tutki murteiden ohessa Ruotsin vallan ajan kirjasuomea uransa alusta saakka, mutta hän alkoi julkaista tutkimuksia 1800-luvun kielestä vasta 1930-luvulla saatuaan Suomen kirjakielen kehitys -teoksensa (1933) ensimmäisen osan julki. Vuosikymmenen jälkipuoliskolla hän alkoi koota aineistoa, josta vähitellen muotoutui merkitysten mukaan jaoteltu sanakokoelma. Aktiivisinta tämän kokoelman keruu ja hyödyntäminen tutkimuksessa näyttäisi olleen sotavuosina 1940-luvun alkupuoliskolla, jolloin julkiset arkistokokoelmat eivät olleet käytettävissä. Näkemyksensä 1800-luvun kielen kehityksestä Rapola kiteytti vuonna 1945 julkaisemansa suppean Vanha kirjasuomi -teoksen loppulukuun. Tätä hän ei teoksen myöhemmissä painoksissa enää muuttanut, vaikka hän julkaisikin laajimmat 1800-luvun kieltä koskevat erityistutkimuksensa vasta tämän jälkeen. Rapola hyödynsi sanakokoelmaansa vielä julkaistessaan valikoiman Sanastomme ensiesiintymiä Agricolasta Yrjö-Koskiseen (1960), mutta tässä teoksessa hän tarkasteli otsikon mukaisesti vain kirjasuomeen vakiintunutta sanastoa, joten suurin osa hänen kokoamastaan aineistosta jäi hyödyntämättä. Rapolan 1800-luvun sanakokoelman on arvioitu käsittävän 44 000 sanalippua. Näistä pieni osa on poimintoja suomen murteista, vanhasta kirjasuomesta ja 1900-luvun kielestä, mutta valtaosa lipuista on poimintoja erilaisista 1800-luvun lähteistä: sanakirjoista ja sanastoista, kirjoista ja lehtiartikkeleista, (etupäässä julkaistujen editioiden kautta) hiukan myös kirjeistä ja päiväkirjoista. Lähteitä on kaikkiaan lähes 900. Niistä suurin osa on 1820–1860-luvuilta; etenkin vuosisadan äärivuosikymmeniltä lähteitä on niukasti. Rapola keskittyi poimimaan kirjasuomen itäisten kehittäjien tuotantoa. Nimekkeiden määrän pohjalta aineistossa parhaiten edustettuina ovat Elias Lönnrot, August Ahlqvist ja Volmar Schildt-Kilpinen, näitä harvinaisempina Reinhold von Becker, Carl Axel Gottlund ja eräät Suomettaren toimittajat. Länsisuomalaisia kielenkäyttäjiä Rapola on poiminut selvästi vähemmän, mikä liittyy osittain siihen, että hän on tarkastellut hyvin niukasti vanhan läntisen kirjakielen suorinta jatkumoa edustavaa 1800-luvun hengellistä kirjasuomea. Poimintojensa niukkuuden vuoksi kirjasuomen pohjoisten kehittäjien, kuten Carl Niclas Keckmanin ja Klaus Johan Kemellin, merkitys ei Rapolalle auennut eikä hän täysin ymmärtänyt hämäläisen Jaakko Juteininkaan roolia. Näin Rapolan sanakokoelman painotukset muokkasivat 1800-luvun kirjasuomesta hänen tutkimustensa kautta vakiintunutta kuvaa. Tämä alkoi muuttua vasta, kun tutkimuksessa alettiin tarkastella myös sellaisia aihealueita ja henkilöitä, joita Rapola oli tutkinut vain niukasti, jos lainkaan.   The 19th-century word collection of Martti Rapola, its background and influence Martti Rapola (1891–1972) conducted research on Finnish dialects and Old Literary Finnish throughout his long career. It was not until 1933, however, that he published his first study on 19th-century Finnish, after the publication of his influential book Suomen kirjakielen kehitys (‘The Development of the Finnish Literary Language’). In the late 1930s, Rapola began collecting material for what would develop into a word collection of 19th-century Finnish based on word meaning. This collection is the focus of this article. The most active phase in the collection and study of this material seems to have been during the war years 1940–1945, when public archive collections were not at his disposal. In 1945 Rapola published the booklet Vanha kirjasuomi (Old Literary Finnish), in the final chapter of which he went on to formulate his ideas on the development of 19th-century Finnish as well. He did not revise his early thoughts on this subject, even though he published his most substantial studies on 19th-century Finnish in the late 1940s and the 1950s. In 1960 Rapola published Sanastomme ensiesiintymiä, a lexical selection of the first appearances of Finnish words. In this book he only dealt with words still in use, leaving the bulk of his collection unpublished. In its entirety, Rapola’s collection contains approximately 44 000 word notes. The majority of these are based on dictionaries, glossaries, books and articles published in the 19th century, and only a small fraction contains either earlier or later literary language, or material from unpublished sources such as diaries and letters. The list of sources consists of nearly 900 bibliographical entries. These are predominantly from the years 1820–1870; thus, both the beginning and the end of the century are sparsely represented. Rapola focused largely on works by 19th-century representatives of eastern Finnish dialects. Authors like Elias Lönnrot, August Ahlqvist and Volmar Schildt-Kilpinen are very well represented in the collection, while there is less material from Reinhold von Becker, Carl Axel Gottlund and some of the editors of the magazine Suometar. Rapola showed less interest in the works of western dialect representatives, especially for religious literature, which had a long tradition in Western Finland. Due to the scarcity of western material, he failed in his studies to understand the role of the Tavastian author Jaakko Juteini as well as the significance of northern Finnish writers. It was not until scholars started to pay attention to individuals and themes largely overlooked by Rapola that views on 19th-century Finnish began to reach a new stage of development.


Author(s):  
Marcelo Luiz Carvalho Gonçalves ◽  
Cassius Schnell ◽  
Luciana Sianto ◽  
Francoise Bouchet ◽  
Mathieu Le Bailly ◽  
...  

The identification of parasites in ancient human feces is compromised by differential preservation of identifiable parasite structures. However, protein molecules can survive the damage of the environment. It was possible to detected antigen of Entamoeba histolytica and Giardia duodenalis in historic and prehistoric human fecal remains using two enzyme immunoassay (ELISA) kits with monoclonal antibodies specific for E. histolytica and G. duodenalis, respectively. Specimens of desiccated feces and ancient latrine sediment from the New and the Old World were examined. The ELISA detected E. histolytica antigen in samples from Argentina, USA, France, Belgium, and Switzerland, dated to about 5300 years BP to the 19th Century AD. G. duodenalis antigen was detected in samples from USA, Belgium, and Germany, dated to about 1200 AD, 1600 AD, and 1700 AD. The detection of protozoan antigen using immunoassays is a reliable tool for the study of intestinal parasites in the past.


Author(s):  
Sergio Sabbatani ◽  
Luca Ansaloni ◽  
Massimo Sartelli ◽  
Federico Coccolini ◽  
Salomone Di Saverio ◽  
...  

Risk of infection remains a major concern for surgeons. The expansion of surgery towards the end of the 19th century determined a noticeable increase in septicemia and gangrene, and surgeons developed various techniques to limit them. In a previous publication, we reminded our readers of one of the gems of Italian surgery, Dr. Giuseppe Ruggi, who operated in Bologna from the end of 19th to the beginning of the 20th century. To him we owe the introduction and dissemination of the antiseptic method in Bologna. His scientific activity continued with Dr. Benedetto Schiassi, his successor. The techniques used to avoid microbial contamination by the Italian surgeon Dr. Schiassi, are particularly interesting, as Schiassi’s tentorium is still useful. Despite advances in surgical technologies, many innovations to prevent infection in surgery proposed in the past are still relevant today.


2017 ◽  
Vol 6 (2) ◽  
pp. 135-140
Author(s):  
Constantin Vadimovich Troianowski

This article investigates the process of designing of the new social estate in imperial Russia - odnodvortsy of the western provinces. This social category was designed specifically for those petty szlachta who did not possess documents to prove their noble ancestry and status. The author analyses deliberations on the subject that took place in the Committee for the Western Provinces. The author focuses on the argument between senior imperial officials and the Grodno governor Mikhail Muraviev on the issue of registering petty szlachta in fiscal rolls. Muraviev argued against setting up a special fiscal-administrative category for petty szlachta suggesting that its members should join the already existing unprivileged categories of peasants and burgers. Because this proposal ran against the established fiscal practices, the Committee opted for creating a distinct social estate for petty szlachta. The existing social estate paradigm in Russia pre-assigned the location of the new soslovie in the imperial social hierarchy. Western odnodvortsy were to be included into a broad legal status category of the free inhabitants. Despite similarity of the name, the new estate was not modeled on the odnodvortsy of the Russian provinces because they retained from the past certain privileges (e.g. the right to possess serfs) that did not correspond to the 19th century attributes of unprivileged social estates.


2011 ◽  
Vol 139 (suppl. 1) ◽  
pp. 6-9 ◽  
Author(s):  
Milutin Nenadovic

Discordances of harmonic mental functioning are as old as the human kind. Psychopathological behaviour of an individual in the past was not treated as an illness. That means that psychopathology was not considered an illness. In all past civilizations discordance of mental harmony of an individual is interpreted from the physiological aspect. Psychopathologic expression was not considered an illness, so social attitudes about psychiatric patients in the past were non-medical and generally speaking inhuman. Hospitals did not follow development of medicine for admission of psychiatric patients in past civilizations, not even in the antique era. According to historic sources, the first hospital that was meant for mental patients only was established in the 15th century, 1409 in Valencia (Spain). Therefore mental patients were isolated in a special institution-hospital, and social community rejected them. Only in the new era psychopathological behavior begins to be treated as an illness. Therefore during the 19th century psychiatry is developed as a special branch of medicine, and mental disorder is more and more seen according to the principals of interpretation of physical illnesses. By the middle of the 19th century psychiatric hospitals are humanized, and patients are being less physically restricted. Deinstitutialisation in protection of mental health is the heritage of reforms from the beginning of the 19th century which regarded the prevention of mental health protection. It was necessary to develop institutions of the prevention of protection in the community which would primarily have social support and characteristics.


2020 ◽  
Vol 9 (73) ◽  

This research covers an examination of the effects of the ongoing war in Palestine on artists of Palestinian origin and their works that can be considered as “uprising (intifada)”. Although the beginning of the Palestine-Israel conflict can be dated back to the end of the 19th century, the turning point has been known as 1948 when the State of Israel was officially declared. While the year 1948 means victory for the Israelis, this date was imprinted on the memories of the Palestinians as a “Catastrophe (nakba in Arabic)”. The First Palestinian Intifada (uprising), which took place twice in Palestine from 1987 to 1993 (the period from the signing of the Oslo Accords and the Palestinian uprising against the occupation of Palestinian lands), the second Palestinian Intifada (uprising) from September 2000 to 2005 and the interim periods when the artists came to the fore with their works were evaluated within the scope of the uprisings. Artists who attempt to trace the traces of individual and social war memory, notably those such as Mona Hatoum, Emily Jacir and Dana Awartani, were addressed within the scope of the research on the works of artists of Palestinian origin. As a result, the works of artists, who have been continuing in Palestine from the past to the present and cannot easily isolate themselves from the conflicts, will take their place in art history as the anatomy of an occupied society by war. Keywords: war, art, Intifada art, Palestinian artists, occupation


1970 ◽  
Vol 24 ◽  
pp. 217-228
Author(s):  
Oleg W. Szeremietiew

The article addresses the oeuvre devoted to the Napoleonic Wars by eminent Polish battle painter and illustrator of the 2nd half of the 19th century, Juliusz Kossak (the founder of a dynasty of artists). Many of the artist’s pictures and watercolours show Polish soldiers, participants of the Epopee. They reflected not only the work and research of the master and his vision of the past, but also the patriotic idea of the revival of Poland and its nation.  


ORGANON ◽  
2020 ◽  
pp. 75-100
Author(s):  
Adèle Chevalie

The fact that ethnographical collections, often ancient, are preserved in archaeological museums nowadays might not be obvious. The material culture of living societies is not, indeed, the priority of archaeologists, who are mainly interested in societies of the past. However, a museological and historical approach makes it possible to study these collections and highlight their differential management according to institutions and epistemological developments in the human sciences, since the middle of the 19th century.


2021 ◽  
Vol 31 (1) ◽  
pp. 195-217

Among the various human attitudes toward a pandemic, along with fear, despair and anger, there is also an urge to praise the catastrophe or imbue it with some sort of hope. In 2020 such hopes were voiced in the stream of all the other COVID-19 reactions and interpretations in the form of predictions of imminent social, political or economic changes that may or must be brought on by the pandemic, or as calls to “rise above” the common human sentiment and see the pandemic as some sort of cruel-but-necessary bitter pill to cure human depravity or social disorganization. Is it really possible for a plague of any kind to be considered a relief? Or perhaps a just punishment? In order to assess the validity of such interpretations, this paper considers the artistic reactions to the pandemics of the past, specifically the images of the plague from Alexander Pushkin’s play Feast During the Plague, Antonin Artaud’s essay “The Theatre and the Plague” and Albert Camus’s novel The Plague. These works in different ways explore an attitude in which a plague can be praised in some respect. The plague can be a means of self-overcoming and purification for both an individual and for society. At the same time, Pushkin and Camus, each in his own way and by different means, show the illusory nature of that attitude. A mass catastrophe can reveal the resources already present in humankind, but it does not help either the individual or the society to progress.


Res Publica ◽  
1986 ◽  
Vol 28 (1) ◽  
pp. 139-158
Author(s):  
Pascale Delfosse

Throughout the 19th. century and at the beginning of the 20th various European states, including those of Britain, Germany, France and Belgium, undertook fairly similar measures affecting women. These had a bearing on their civic status, political rights and rights at work.The aim of this study is to seek a pattern of these farms of intervention. Though the case of Belgium is used to illustrate this proposed pattern, it can be held valid for other European countries, despite slight differences in their application or the fact that these steps took place at varying dates according to the precise stage of development of the countries concerned.


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