Dietary Sodium Intake and the Main Sources of Salt in the Diet of Young Adults in Latvia

Abstract Scientific studies have regularly confirmed that nowadays the salt consumption through food is too much, and its consumption has to be reduced. The aim of the study was to ascertain the amount of salt consumed per day by 18–35 year-old Latvians as well as to identify the main sources of salt in their diets. The following research methods were used in the study: questionnaire based on an example recommended by the World Health Organisation, sociological research method, bread baking tests, and logically constructive, and statistical research methods. The results of this research showed that the average intake of salt in the diet of 18–35 year-old Latvians was 7.1 g per day. Of all the respondents, 63% consumed more than the recommended 5 g of salt per day, and none of them consumed less than necessary to meet their physiological needs. The results showed that women consumed less salt than men — approximately 6 g per day, while men consumed 8.2 g of salt per day. The main sources of salt in the diet of 18–35 year old Latvians were cereals and cereal products, as well as meat and meat products. Among cereal products, the key source of salt was represented by bread and pastry.

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Sodium Levels of Processed Meat in Australia: Supermarket Survey Data from 2010 to 2017

Nutrients ◽

10.3390/nu10111686 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 10 (11) ◽

pp. 1686 ◽

Cited By ~ 5

Author(s):

Emalie Sparks ◽

Clare Farrand ◽

Joseph Santos ◽

Briar McKenzie ◽

Kathy Trieu ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Sodium Intake ◽

Meat Products ◽

Monitoring And Evaluation ◽

Sodium Content ◽

World Health ◽

Processed Meat ◽

High Sodium ◽

Processed Meats ◽

Health Organization ◽

Health Dialogue

High sodium intake increases blood pressure and consequently increases the risk of cardiovascular diseases. In Australia, the best estimate of sodium intake is 3840 mg sodium/day, almost double the World Health Organization (WHO) guideline (2000 mg/day), and processed meats contribute approximately 10% of daily sodium intake to the diet. This study assessed the median sodium levels of 2510 processed meat products, including bacon and sausages, available in major Australian supermarkets in 2010, 2013, 2015 and 2017, and assessed changes over time. The median sodium content of processed meats in 2017 was 775 mg/100 g (interquartile range (IQR) 483–1080). There was an 11% reduction in the median sodium level of processed meats for which targets were set under the government’s Food and Health Dialogue (p < 0.001). This includes bacon, ham/cured meat products, sliced luncheon meat and meat with pastry categories. There was no change in processed meats without a target (median difference 6%, p = 0.450). The new targets proposed by the current government’s Healthy Food Partnership capture a larger proportion of products than the Food and Health Dialogue (66% compared to 35%) and a lower proportion of products are at or below the target (35% compared to 54%). These results demonstrate that voluntary government targets can drive nutrient reformulation. Future efforts will require strong government leadership and robust monitoring and evaluation systems.

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Salt and potassium intake among adult Ghanaians: WHO-SAGE Ghana Wave 3

BMC Nutrition ◽

10.1186/s40795-020-00379-y ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 6 (1) ◽

Author(s):

Elias K. Menyanu ◽

Barbara Corso ◽

Nadia Minicuci ◽

Ilaria Rocco ◽

Joanna Russell ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Salt Intake ◽

Population Based ◽

Dietary Sodium ◽

World Health ◽

Adult Health ◽

Salt Reduction ◽

Hypertension Prevalence ◽

Salt Consumption ◽

Consumption Data

Abstract Though Ghana has high hypertension prevalence, the country lacks current national salt consumption data required to build and enhance advocacy for salt reduction. We explored the characteristics of a randomly selected sub sample that had valid urine collection, along with matched survey, anthropometric and BP data (n = 839, mean age = 60y), from the World Health Organization’s Study on global AGEing and adult health (WHO-SAGE), Ghana Wave 3, n = 3053). We also investigated the relationship between salt intake and blood pressure (BP) among the cohort. BP was measured in triplicate and 24 h urine was collected for the determination of urinary sodium (Na), potassium (K), creatinine (Cr) and iodine levels. Hypertension prevalence was 44.3%. Median salt intake was 8.3 g/day, higher in women compared to men (8.6, interquartile range (IQR) 7.5 g/day vs 7.5, IQR 7.4 g/day, p < 0.01), younger participants (18–49 y) compared to older ones (50+ y) (9.7, IQR 7.9 g/day vs 8.1, IQR 7.1 g/day, p < 0.01) and those with higher Body Mass Index (BMI) (> 30 kg/m2) compared to a healthy BMI (18.5–24.9 kg/m2) (10.04, IQR 5.1 g/day vs 6.2, IQR 5.6 g/day, p < 0.01). More than three quarters (77%, n = 647) of participants had salt intakes above the WHO maximum recommendation of 5 g/d, and nearly two thirds (65%, n = 548) had daily K intakes below the recommended level of 90 mmol. Dietary sodium to potassium (Na: K) ratios above 2 mmol/mmol were positively associated with increasing BP with age. Population-based interventions to reduce salt intake and increase K consumption are needed.

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Salt Consumption in Latvian Population: A Pilot Study

Medicina ◽

10.3390/medicina54010010 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 54 (1) ◽

pp. 10

Author(s):

Ilva Lazda ◽

Māris Goldmanis ◽

Inese Siksna

Keyword(s):

Pilot Study ◽

Sodium Intake ◽

Large Population ◽

Population Based ◽

Dietary Sodium ◽

World Health ◽

Food Diary ◽

Potassium Intake ◽

Sodium And Potassium ◽

Dietary Data

Background and objective: High dietary sodium intake is associated with multiple health risks, and the average sodium intake in Latvia is higher than the World Health Organization has recommended. In Latvia, no study so far has combined self-reported dietary data on sodium and potassium intake with objective measurements in 24-h urine samples. This pilot study aimed to cross-validate both methods and to assess any possible factors interfering with the collection of samples and data in large, population-based future studies of sodium and potassium intake in Latvian adults. Materials and methods: A stratified random sample of healthy Latvian adults aged 19–64 (n = 30) was drawn. Dietary data of sodium and potassium was collected using one 24-h dietary recall and a two-day food diary. Sodium and potassium excretion was measured by one 24-h urinary collection. Results: Median intake of sodium and potassium based on dietary data was 2276.4 mg/day (interquartile range (IQR), 1683.3–3979.4) and 2172.0 mg/day (IQR, 1740.6–3506.5), respectively. Median intake of sodium and potassium based on urinary data was 3500.3 mg/day (IQR, 2191.0–5535.0) and 2965.4 mg/day (IQR, 2530.2–3749.9), respectively. Urinary data showed significantly higher results than dietary records (Wilcoxon signed rank test, p = 0.023). Only 13% of the subjects did not exceed the WHO-recommended limit of 2000 mg of sodium per day, and only 33% consumed at least the recommended allowance of 3510 mg of potassium per day. Median intake of salt was 8.8 g/day (IQR, 5.5–13.8) (according to urinary data). Conclusions: The findings from the present study showed considerable underestimation of dietary sodium and potassium intake based on self-reported dietary data. Urinary data revealed more accurate results, and showed that Latvian adults exceed the amount of salt recommended and consume less potassium than recommended. The pilot study also showed that the chosen methods are adequate for implementation in large, population-based studies to evaluate dietary intake of salt, sodium, and potassium in populations of Latvian adults.

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Mapping Dietary Sodium Reduction Policies and Initiatives in the Region of the Americas

Current Developments in Nutrition ◽

10.1093/cdn/nzaa064_004 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 4 (Supplement_2) ◽

pp. 1714-1714

Author(s):

Nadia Flexner ◽

Mary L'Abbé ◽

Barbara Legowski ◽

Ruben Grajeda Toledo

Keyword(s):

Sodium Intake ◽

Cost Effective ◽

Dietary Sodium ◽

World Health ◽

Significant Advance ◽

Relative Reduction ◽

Sodium Reduction ◽

Pan American ◽

Reduce Sodium Intake ◽

Health Organization

Abstract Objectives To map existing country policies addressing population dietary sodium reduction in the Americas; to identify policy gaps in the region following what is outlined in the World Health Organization (WHO) “Best Buys” most cost-effective recommendations for the prevention and control of diet-related noncommunicable diseases (NCDs); and to discuss priorities for future work in the Region. Methods This study used mixed methods to analyze data from 34 countries. Data were collected through a structured review, of mostly national official sources, to identify current policies in place to reduce population sodium intake. Also, responses from the last Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) online Survey on National Initiatives for Sodium Reduction in the Americas were included. Finally, country profiles were prepared and sent to each country's Public Health Agency for validation and comments. Results Almost all countries (n = 23/34) had a recommendation to reduce salt intake included in policies related to NCDs. Only six countries had specific and comprehensive policies to reduce sodium intake, and only one of them was a National Law. Adoption of the WHO “Best Buys” in national policies included: reformulation of food products with voluntary (n = 9/34) and mandatory targets (n = 2/34); establishment of a supportive environment in public institutions (n = 14/34); and implementation of front-of-pack labelling (n = 5/34). Some countries have implemented regulations restricting marketing of foods high in sodium to children (n = 5/34); nutritional labelling that includes sodium content, either voluntary (n = 9/34) or mandatory (n = 10/34); and no country has yet implemented taxes on high sodium foods. Conclusions In recent years, there has been a significant advance in policies to reduce sodium intake in the Region of the Americas. However, this review identified that the level of implementation in practice is complex to assess and quite heterogeneous. Reducing sodium consumption is a cost-effective intervention that can save many lives, by preventing and reducing the burden of diet related NCD's. Therefore, a further call to action is needed for governments to accelerate efforts in order to meet the 2025 global target of a 30% relative reduction in mean population intake of sodium. Funding Sources Pan American Health Organization (PAHO/WHO).

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Acceptance of salt reduction in bakery bread among Moroccan consumers

The North African Journal of Food and Nutrition Research - July-December 2021 ◽

10.51745/najfnr.3.6.219-228 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 3 (6) ◽

pp. 219-228

Author(s):

Yasmine Guennoun ◽

Amina Bouziani ◽

Habiba Bajit ◽

Hicham El Berri ◽

Laila Elammari ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Sodium Chloride ◽

Sodium Intake ◽

Heart Diseases ◽

Salt Content ◽

Dietary Sodium ◽

Average Score ◽

Purchase Intent ◽

Salt Reduction ◽

Moroccan Population ◽

Salt Consumption

Background: The use of cooking salt (sodium chloride) for bread preparation is due to several important sensory and technological properties. Even considered as an essential micronutrient and a salty taste stimulus, a significant dietary sodium intake is positively correlated with high blood pressure levels and some heart diseases. Recently, Morocco has adopted a plan to reduce salt consumption aiming to reinforce the prevention of Non-Communicable Diseases (NCDs) and to contribute to the achievement of 2025 global voluntary targets, set by the Second International Conference on Nutrition (ICN2). Aims: The aim of the present study was to determine the acceptance of bakery bread with a different percentage reduction of salt by the Moroccan population. Subjects and Methods: Various percentages of salt reduction in experimental bread; 7%, 10%, 16%, 23%, 30%, and 53%, were tasted and compared with standard market bread by 201 individuals. “Just About Right” (JAR) and purchase scales were utilized to score the different sample bread. Results: Bread with 10% and 16% salt reduction were highly accepted by 76% and 79% of tasters, respectively. Based on the JAR score, these types of bread were considered as “just about right’ by 50% and 57% of the participants respectively. The best average score of purchase intent was obtained for salt content of 1.62g and 1.56g per 100g for a reduction of 10% and 16% respectively. Conclusions: The current adopted strategy allows a 16% sodium reduction while maintaining taste quality. Keywords: Sodium chloride, bread, salt reduction, Moroccan population.

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SODIUM CHLORIDE CONTENT IN MEAT PRODUCTS

Archives of Veterinary Medicine ◽

10.46784/e-avm.v6i1.146 ◽

2013 ◽

Vol 6 (1) ◽

pp. 71-79

Author(s):

Nadežda Prica ◽

Milica Živkov Baloš ◽

Željko Mihaljev ◽

Sandra Jakšić ◽

Igor Stojanov

Keyword(s):

Sodium Chloride ◽

Salt Intake ◽

Sodium Intake ◽

Meat Products ◽

Chloride Content ◽

World Health ◽

Ground Meat ◽

Table Salt ◽

Canned Meat ◽

Dry Sausages

Table salt is the first food additive and its preserving eff ects are well known since long time ago. Because of its role in everyday diet, table salt is one of the fi rst products designated as “functional food”. However, it was established that excessive salt intake, i.e. sodium intake, is frequently associated with hypertension and development of a range of other diseases. Sodium chloride affects sensory and microbiological properties of meat products; however, it aff ects the human health as well. Since the current Regulation (Offi cial Gazette of the Republic of Serbia No. 31/2012) did not define the sodium chloride content of in meat products as a quality parameter, the aim of our study was to determine levels of sodium chloride in diverse meat products available at the market in Novi Sad. A total of 260 samples of meat products were examined, including: shaped ground (minced) meat, vegetarian spreads, smoked products, fermented dry sausages, fi nely minced boiled sausages, canned meat chop and cooked sausages. The content of sodium chloride was determined by using volumetric method. The lowest average sodium chloride content was established in samples of shaped ground meat, being 2.53%. Average level of sodium chloride in vegetarian spreads was 3.55%, in cooked sausages 2.95% and in canned meat chop and smoked products 3.44%. Sodium chloride content in boiled sausages was 3.06%, whereas highest value was established in fermented dry sausages, being 3.71%. According to the guidelines of the World Health Organization, daily salt intake for healthy adults should not exceed 5-6 g. Since the obtained results indicated that sodium chloride contents in some samples were close to the upper recommended limits, continuous and systematic monitoring is of paramount importance in a view of obtaining accurate and reliable information on the content of sodium chloride in relevant meat products.

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HEALTHCARE CONSCIOUSNESS WITH SALT

Journal of Extension Systems ◽

10.18765/jes.v33i01.10581 ◽

2017 ◽

Vol 33 (01) ◽

Author(s):

O. S. Verma

Keyword(s):

Medical Research ◽

World Health Organization ◽

Salt Intake ◽

Sodium Intake ◽

Dietary Sodium ◽

World Health ◽

The World ◽

Excessive Intake ◽

Health Organization ◽

Average Consumption

This is 12th in the series of Articles on Healthcare Consciousness. In this Article, we throw light on “Intake of Salt”, a part of which was published in June-2011 issue of Vol-27(2011). A research that analysed population from 187 countries said that almost 1.65 million people across the world die due to excessive intake of salt. Average consumption of salt across the globe is 3.95 gm per day per person nearly double the 2 gm recommended by World Health Organization. Rate of death from cardiovascular causes associated with Sodium intake is highest in Georgia and lowest in Kenya. In India, India Council of Medical Research found Mean Salt intake at 9 gm per day. This is highly risky level. In order to reduce dietary Sodium, strong policies are need of the hour.

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Bread Consumption Is Associated with Elevated Blood Pressure among Adults Living in Mexico City–A Sub-Analysis of the Tlalpan 2020 Study

Nutrients ◽

10.3390/nu10121969 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 10 (12) ◽

pp. 1969 ◽

Cited By ~ 2

Author(s):

Xochitl Ponce-Martínez ◽

Eloisa Colin-Ramirez ◽

Paulina Sánchez-Puerto ◽

Susana Rivera-Mancía ◽

Raúl Cartas-Rosado ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Blood Pressure ◽

Sodium Intake ◽

Elevated Blood Pressure ◽

Dietary Sodium ◽

Elevated Blood ◽

Breakfast Cereal ◽

Cross Sectional ◽

Cereal Products ◽

Reference Category ◽

Increased Risk

Excessive dietary sodium is associated with elevated blood pressure (EBP). Bread products are identified as one of the main sources of daily sodium intake. The objective of this cross-sectional study was to evaluate the association between bread and others cereal products consumption with EBP. Frequency intake of a standard serving of bread and other cereal products was recorded and categorized as: ≤3 times/month or never (reference category group) and ≥ once/week. EBP was defined as systolic blood pressure (SBP) ≥120 mmHg and/or diastolic blood pressure (DBP) ≥80 mmHg. Raw and adjusted odds ratios (OR) for the association between consumption of the studied food products and blood pressure status were estimated. Overall, 2011 participants aged 37.3 ± 9.1 years old were included. In the models adjusted for relevant covariates, consumption of one piece of bolillo or telera (OR = 1.39; 95% CI = 1.01–1.89) ≥ once/week was associated with an increased risk of EBP, compared to the reference category. Also, participants consuming one bowl of high-fiber breakfast cereal once/week were less likely to have EBP (OR = 0.73; 95% CI = 0.53–0.98). Initiatives to reduce sodium levels in bread products such as bolillo and telera are needed in Mexico to help manage the cardiovascular risk at the population level.

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Sources of Dietary Sodium in Food and Beverages Consumed by Spanish Schoolchildren between 7 and 11 Years Old by the Degree of Processing and the Nutritional Profile

Nutrients ◽

10.3390/nu10121880 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 10 (12) ◽

pp. 1880 ◽

Cited By ~ 5

Author(s):

Esther Cuadrado-Soto ◽

África Peral-Suarez ◽

Aránzazu Aparicio ◽

Jose Perea ◽

Rosa Ortega ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Salt Intake ◽

Sodium Intake ◽

Meat Products ◽

Sodium Content ◽

Dietary Sodium ◽

Negative Effects ◽

Nutritional Profile ◽

Food And Beverages ◽

Dietary Record ◽

Level Of Processing

Excessive salt intake has negative effects on health and persists as a dietary problem in Spanish children. However, the analysis of dietary sodium sources has not been extensively studied. A group of 321 children between 7 and 11 years old from five Spanish regional communities was studied. A three-day dietary record was used to determine the contribution of food and beverages to dietary sodium intake. The food consumed was classified based on the level of processing (NOVA classification) and the nutritional profile. Boys consumed more dietary sodium and sodium from ultra-processed food (UPF) than girls (p < 0.05). The main sources of dietary sodium from discretionary food were meat and meat products (25.1%), some ready-to-eat and pre-cooked dishes (7.4%) and sugars and sweets (6.3%). More than 4/5 of the total dietary sodium consumed came from processed foods (PF) and UPF. Ready-to-eat and pre-cooked dishes (14.4%), meat and meat products (10.6%), and cereals (10.2%) were the most relevant UPF. These results demonstrate that a key point for Spanish children is a reduction in the sodium content in PF and UPF, whether these foods are for basic or discretionary consumption. Furthermore, a decrease in the frequency and the quantity of discretionary food consumption should be encouraged.

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Comparison of 24-h Diet Records, 24-h Urine, and Duplicate Diets for Estimating Dietary Intakes of Potassium, Sodium, and Iodine in Children

Nutrients ◽

10.3390/nu11122927 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 11 (12) ◽

pp. 2927

Author(s):

Rana Peniamina ◽

Sheila Skeaff ◽

Jillian J. Haszard ◽

Rachael McLean

Keyword(s):

New Zealand ◽

Sodium Intake ◽

Dietary Assessment ◽

Iodine Intake ◽

Dietary Sodium ◽

World Health ◽

Dietary Intakes ◽

Cross Sectional ◽

Sodium Potassium ◽

Duplicate Diets

Accurately estimating nutrient intake can be challenging, yet it is important for informing policy. This cross-sectional validation study compared the use of three methods for estimating the intake of sodium, potassium, and iodine in children aged 9–11 years in New Zealand. Over the same 24 hour period, participants collected duplicate diets (n = 37), weighed food records (n = 84), and 24 hour urine samples (n = 82). Important differences were found between dietary estimates of sodium, potassium, and iodine using the three methods of dietary assessment, suggesting that different methods of assessment have specific limitations for the measurement of these nutrients in children. Bland Altman plots show relatively wide limits of agreement for all measures and nutrients. These results support the World Health Organization’s (WHOs) recommendations to use urinary assessment to measure population sodium and iodine intake, while dietary assessment appears to be more accurate for estimating potassium intake. Compared to reference values, our results suggest that the children in this study consume inadequate iodine, inadequate potassium, and excess dietary sodium. Public health measures to reduce sodium intake, increase intake of fruit and vegetables, and iodine-rich foods are warranted in New Zealand.

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