Based on Paul Ekman’s typology of motives of lying, authors wanted to investigate how oftenthey motivate pupils and students to lie. Two studies were conducted: 1) in primary schools anda high school, 2) on different universities. In the second study we also measured the level of needfor approval and agency/communion (the Big Two). Both studies gave similar results, revealing thatpupils and students declared higher frequency of lying motivated by avoiding any inconveniencethan by gaining some kind of profit. Detailed analyses showed that the highest frequency oflying was motivated by two reasons: to protect oneself or someone else from danger and to avoiduncomfortable, awkward situations. Next in frequencies were motives driven by willingness toavoid any nuisance (e.g. punishment, embarrassment or to protect one’s privacy). In both studieslying driven by willingness to gain some kind of profit (e.g. reward, being liked, admired or togain power) was declared as rather rare. Analyses showed that the latter result was not free frominfluence of need for approval. Both age and sex played a certain role in these declarations. In thefirst study, boys significantly more often than girls declared to lie to protect oneself or someoneelse from danger, to secure one’s privacy and to gain power. There were no such differences in thesecond study (among students). As to age, primary school pupils declared lying to be liked (girls)and admired (boys) more often than teenagers in high school, while the latter declared lying togain power and to protect oneself or someone else from danger more often than primary schoolpupils. In turn, students declared, significantly more often than younger subjects, to lie for allreasons. The Big Two turned out to be of little significance – only lower level of communion was, asexpected, connected to higher frequency of both categories of lies (to gain / to avoid), especially incertain reasons of lying (e.g. to gain power or admiration). The results are discussed in the contextof further studies on bigger and more varied groups, Polish cultural specificity and possible biasinginfluence of need for approval in studies of lying.
Personal cell phones among children: attitudes of parents of primary school pupils