scholarly journals Por descontado. Creación de un marcador de evidencia

2019 ◽  
Author(s):  
Francisco Javier Herrero Ruiz de Loizaga
Keyword(s):  
20Th Century ◽  
19Th Century ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
Prepositional Phrase ◽  
16Th Century ◽  
Dominant Form ◽  
The 19Th Century

This paper studies the development of por descontado and the previous construction por de contado, which is attested from the 18th century. It comes from the prepositional phrase de contado, which originally had the meaning ‘in cash’, but in the 16th century acquires also the value ‘on the spot’. This slip is possible because what is paid in cash is paid on the spot. A subsequent slip leads to the value ‘of course’. Since the end of the 19th century, there are constructions of the type dar o tener por descontado, with the meaning ‘take for granted’, in which por descontado is a predicative complement of a noun clause. Given the similarity in meaning between these constructions and por de contado, there was a formal interference that led to the appearance of por descontado as a formal variant of the marker por de contado. This variant is attested from the beginning of the 20th century, and from the second half it becomes the dominant form.

Origine et diffusion des expressions romanes du type jaune paille

2021 ◽  
Vol 133 (1) ◽  
pp. 3-27
Author(s):  
Sara Matrisciano ◽  
Franz Rainer
Keyword(s):  
20Th Century ◽  
19Th Century ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
17Th Century ◽  
16Th Century ◽  
Romance Languages ◽  
Short Discussion ◽  
Colour Term ◽  
The 19Th Century ◽  
And Diffusion

All major Romance languages have patterns of the type jaune paille for expressing shades of colour represented by some prototypical object. The first constituent of this pattern is a colour term, while the second one designates a prototypical representative of the colour shade. The present paper starts with a short discussion of the controversial grammatical status of this pattern and its constituents. Its main aim, however, concerns the origin and diffusion of this pattern. We have not found hard and fast evidence that Medieval Italian pigment compounds of the type verderame influenced the rise of the jaune paille pattern, which first appears in French in the 16th century. This pattern continued to be a minority solution during the 17th century, but established itself during the 18th century. In the 19th century, Italian, Spanish and Portuguese adopted the pattern jaune paille, while it did not reach Catalan and Romanian before the 20th century.

scholarly journals Considerations to some forms of the verb a fi: sum and sunt

Diacronia ◽  
2018 ◽  
Author(s):  
Gheorghe Chivu
Keyword(s):  
20Th Century ◽  
19Th Century ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
History Of ◽  
Literary Writing ◽  
The 19Th Century

The history of the verbal forms sum and sunt, introduced into the literary writing by the Transylvanian Latinist School, reveals a winding process in the elaboration of certain cultured norms proper to the modern literary Romanian. Not at all linear, this process was concurrently influenced by two, often divergent, tendencies that were active from the end of the 18th century up to the beginning of the 20th century: the use of some cultured forms, borrowed from Latin or created according to Latin patterns; and the revitalization of certain linguistic forms with regional diffusion. Initially proposed as literary pronunciations, the two verbal forms were soon adopted and used as etymological graphic forms that corresponded to sîm and suntu from certain conservative patois. During the second half of the 19th century (sum), and during the first decades of the 20th century (sunt), the two graphic forms became orthoepic norms as well, due to the phonological tradition of the Romanian writing.

scholarly journals Nauka sztuki kupieckiej w Krakowie XVI–XIX wieku. Zarys problemu

2019 ◽  
pp. 7-20
Author(s):  
Marcin Gadocha
Keyword(s):  
19Th Century ◽  
Foster Parents ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
Birth Certificate ◽  
16Th Century ◽  
The 19Th Century

The article is a survey and an attempt to bring closer the questions connected with the education of future tradesmen in Cracow from the 16th century until the first half of the 19th century. Thus far, there has been no thorough study devoted to this topic. In the 16th century, young adepts of trade would start learning this occupation in their father’s business, further family’s business or in the dynamically developing trading houses in Cracow. In the 16th c. and 17th c. there was no merchants’ guild in Cracow, which could oversee the process of learning the “art of trade”. Only the establishment of the Merchants’ Congregation in 1722 brought about changes in this respect. Ultimately, in the new statute of the Congregation from 1833, the new principles of training were formulated. Candidates had to present their birth certificate, the recommending certificate written by their parents or foster parents. Moreover, the candidate had to be able to read, write and calculate in Polish or German. Learning took three years in the 16th and 17th centuries; in the 18th century this period was prolonged, in the 19th century lasted from 4 to 6 years. According to the author, the problem still requires further in-depth research. After the archival query, it seems that there are good possibilities to obtain valuable material connected with mercantile art in Cracow.

Classical Architecture in Europe and North America since 1700

Classics ◽  
2018 ◽  
Author(s):  
Elizabeth Macaulay-Lewis
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
20Th Century ◽  
19Th Century ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
The United States ◽  
Classical Antiquity ◽  
Early 20Th Century ◽  
Classical Architecture ◽  
Greco Roman ◽  
The 19Th Century

Since the Western Roman Empire collapsed, classical, or Greco-Roman, architecture has served as a model to articulate the cultural, artistic, political, and ideological goals of later civilizations, empires, nations, and individuals. The Renaissance marked the first major, widespread re-engagement with classical antiquity in art, literature, and architecture. Debates over classical antiquity and its relation to the modern world continued ever since. One such important debate was that of the quarrel between the Ancients and Moderns, which resulted when Charles Perrault published his Parallèles des anciens et des modernes in 1688. This dispute focused on whether the modern age could surpass antiquity, especially in literature. The Greco-Roman controversy (1750s and 1760s) was another example of Europeans engaging with the classical past; this debate focused on whether Greek or Roman art was of greater historical value; an argument has continued unabated to this day. Figures like Johann Joachim Winckelmann argued (in publications such as Winckelmann 1764, cited under Early Archaeological Publications on Greece and Classical Ruins in the Roman East, on Greek art) for the supremacy of Greek forms, while others like Giovanni Battista Piranesi (whose 1748–1778 views of Rome are reproduced in Ficacci 2011, cited under Early Archaeological Publications on Italy) advocated for Rome’s preeminence. Such debates demonstrate how classical antiquity was an essential part of the intellectual and artistic milieu of 18th-century Europe. This bibliography focuses on the appropriation of classical architecture in the creation of built forms from 1700 to the present in Europe and North America, which is typically called neoclassical or neo-classical, both of which are acceptable. Scholars often define the neoclassical period as lasting from c. 1750 to 1830, when European art and architecture predominantly appropriated classical forms and ideas. The influence of classical architecture continued in popularity throughout the 19th century and early 20th century in the United States. The early 19th century saw the flourishing of the Greek Revival, where Greek forms dominated artistic and architectural production, both in Europe and the United States. The ascendance of Queen Victoria in 1837 marked a shift toward a preference for the Gothic and Medieval forms. Neoclassical forms saw a resurgence in the second half of the 19th century, as Roman architectural forms became increasingly popular as an expression of empire. The term “Neo-classical” was coined as early as January 1872 by Robert Kerr, who used the term positively. It later took on certain negative overtones, when it was used as a derogatory epithet by an unknown writer in the Times of London in 1892. Neoclassical architecture has fared no better with the rise of modernism in the early 20th century onward and since then it has been seen as old-fashioned and derivative. Neoclassical architecture was not a mindless imitation of classical architectural forms and interiors. The interest in classical architecture and the creation of neoclassical architecture was spurred on by important archaeological discoveries in the mid-18th century, which widened the perception of Greek and Roman buildings. The remarkable flexibility of ancient architecture to embody the grandeur of an empire, as well as the principles of a nascent democracy, meant that it had great potential to be interpreted and reinterpreted by countless architects, patrons, empires, and nation states—in different ways and at different times from the 18th to the 20th century. This bibliography is organized thematically (e.g., General Overviews; Companions, Handbooks, and Theoretical Works; Reference Works; Early General Archaeological Publications; The Reception of Pompeii, Herculaneum, and the Bay of Naples; and World’s Fairs and Expositions) and then geographically, creating country- or region-specific bibliographies. While this model of organization has some flaws, it aims to avoid repetition and highlights the interconnected nature and process of the reception of classical architecture in later periods.

scholarly journals Reindeer pastoralism in Sweden 1550-1950

Rangifer ◽  
2007 ◽  
Vol 27 (3) ◽  
pp. 9 ◽  
Author(s):  
Lennart Lundmark
Keyword(s):  
19Th Century ◽  
Large Scale ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
State Intervention ◽  
16Th Century ◽  
Detailed Knowledge ◽  
Reindeer Herding ◽  
The North ◽  
Starting Point ◽  
The 19Th Century

In the middle of the 16th century we get the first opportunity to a more detailed knowledge of reindeerpastoralism in Sweden. At that time the Sami lived in a hunter-gatherer economy. A family had in average about 10-20 domesticated reindeer, mainly used for transport. They could also be milked and used as decoys when hunting wild reindeer. During late 16th century the Swedish state and merchants bought large amounts of fur from the Sami. The common payment was butter and flour. This created a new prosperity, which lead to a considerable increase in population in Swedish Lapland. The population became too large for a hunter-gatherer economy. A crisis in early 17th century was the starting point for the transition to a large-scale nomadic reindeer pastoralism. Up to the middle of the 18th century intensive reindeer pastoralism was successful. But the pastoralism became gradually too intensive and diseases started to spread when the herds were kept too densely crowded for milking in summertime. During the first decades of the 19th century reindeer pastoralism in Sweden went through a major crisis. The number of reindeer herding mountain-Sami decreased considerably, mainly because they went to live permanently along the Norwegian coastline. Intensive reindeer pastoralism started to give way for extensive herding towards the end of the 19th century. In the north of Sweden influences from the Kautokeino Sami were an important factor, in the south extensive reindeer herding started to expand when the market for meat came closer to the Sami. During the 1920s the milking of reindeer ceased in Sweden, except in a few families. At that time Sami families from the north had been removed southwards. They further demonstrated the superiority of extensive herding to the Sami in mid- and southern Lapland. Reindeer pastoralism is basically a system of interaction between man and animal, but it has been heavily influenced by market forces and state intervention during hundreds of years. To a large extent these long-term external influences have made reindeer pastoralism what it is today. That aspect should not be overlooked when assessing the future prospects of reindeer pastoralism in Scandinavia.Renskötseln i Sverige 1550-1950Abstract in Swedish / Sammanfattning: Först vid mitten av 1500-talet finns det källmaterial som ger oss en tämligen detaljerad bild av renskötseln i Sverige. Vid den tiden levde samerna i en jakt- , fiske- och samlarekonomi. En familj hade normalt 10-20 renar som främst utnyttjades vid transporter. Tamrenarna kunde också mjölkas och fungera som lockdjur vid vildrensjakt. Under senare delen av 1500-talet köpte svenska staten och handelsmän stora mängder pälsverk av samerna. Den vanligaste betalningen var smör och mjöl. Detta skapade ett välstånd som ledde till en betydande folkökning i svenska lappmarken. Befolkningen blev för stor för att rymmas inom ramarna för en jaktochfiskeekonomi. En kris i början av 1600-talet blev startpunkten för övergången till en storskalig rennomadism.Fram till mitten av 1700-talet var den intensiva renskötseln framgångsrik. Men renskötseln blev efterhand alltför intensiv. Under senare delen av 1700-talet började det spridas sjukdomar i de tätt sammanhållna hjordarna. De första decennierna av 1800-talet innebar en allvarlig kris i renskötseln. Antalet renskötande fjällsamer minskade kraftigt, främst genom utvandring till norska kusten. Den intensiva renskötseln med mjölkning av renarna började ersättas av en extensiv renskötsel inriktad på köttproduktion de sista decennierna av 1800-talet. I norr var naturförhållandena och influenser från Kautokeino-samerna en viktig faktor, i söder utvecklades renskötseln i extensiv riktning främst därför att marknaden för renkött kom närmare renskötarna. Under 1920-talet upphörde mjölkningen av renar i Sverige, utom i några enstaka familjer. Då hade förflyttningarna av samer från nordligaste Sverige söderut påskyndat utvecklingen och ytterligare markerat den extensiva renskötselteknikensöverlägsenhet. Tamrenskötsel är ett samspel mellan människa och djur, men det är inte bara en fråga om renskötaren och hans hjord. Externa marknadsfaktorer, beskattning och lagstiftning har haft ett betydandeinflytande på renskötselns utveckling under hundratals år. De har till stor del format renskötseln till vad den är idag. Detta bör beaktas när man gör bedömningar av renskötselns framtid. 

scholarly journals Formation and Development of the Iconography of the Mesmeric Seance in the Second Half of the 18th — Late 19th Centuries

2021 ◽  
Vol 11 (2) ◽  
pp. 224-242
Author(s):  
Daria O. Martynova ◽  
◽  
Keyword(s):  
Popular Culture ◽  
20Th Century ◽  
19Th Century ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
Comic Book ◽  
Wonder Woman ◽  
Patriarchal Society ◽  
The Face ◽  
The 19Th Century ◽  
Second Wave

Analyzing the evolution of the iconography of such a phenomenon as mesmerism in the second half of the 18th — mid-19th centuries, the author shows that the scenario of modern hypnotic representation and its gestures were established by mesmerists in the second half of the 18th century, followers of the parascientific theory that caused discussions and intrigued doctors and artists for centuries. Analyzing the development of the iconography of mesmeric seance, the author identifies two waves of popularity of this subject: the first wave in the 70–80s of the 18th century and the second wave during the first decade of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th century. Such a duration is due to the fascination with the supernatural and inexplicable, reflected in various styles and trends. In this article, the author tries to show how the development of the iconography of the mesmeric seance provoked the appearance of the hypnotist or magician trickster, who became integrated into popular culture that later began to mark the majority of hypnotic actions, spiritualistic sessions or miracle shows. The author also illustrates how the image of a “controller” in the face of a man formed and confirmed the paradigm of a powerless, mysterious and controlled woman. As a result, it is concluded that hypnosis and mesmerism became common theatrical spectacles in the 20th century, cultivating the power of men (patriarchal society) over an exhausted woman, which is reflected in the works of Georges Méliès, Alfred Hitchcock, and even in the comic book Wonder woman.

Khorezm and the Khanate of Khiva

2019 ◽  
Author(s):  
William Wood
Keyword(s):  
Soviet Union ◽  
Central Asia ◽  
19Th Century ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
Russian Empire ◽  
16Th Century ◽  
Bolshevik Revolution ◽  
The North ◽  
The Soviet Union ◽  
The 19Th Century

The Khanate of Khiva, one of the Uzbek khanates of Central Asia, refers to a political entity in the region of Khorezm from the early 16th century until 1920. The term itself, which was not used by locals who instead used the name vilayet Khwārazm (“country of Khwārazm”), dates from 18th-century Russian usage. Khorezm is an ancient center of sedentary civilization with a distinct culture and history that came under Uzbek rule as the latter migrated southward from their pasturelands on the steppe beginning in the early 16th century. In contrast to the related dynasties in Transoxiana, the Khanate of Khiva retained a greater degree of pastoralism, though the state was still fundamentally built on sedentary agriculture. Though no doubt affected by historical variations in the volume and routes of the overland caravan trade, Khiva remained a key center for transregional trade throughout its history, especially with the growing Russia Empire to the north. Political structures in Khiva remained weak and decentralized until the 19th century, when the Qongrat dynasty succeeded in transforming the khanate into the most centralized state in the region. Among the legacies of the khanate is its promotion of a distinctive Turkic literary culture, which interacted fruitfully with the dominant Persian culture of neighboring regions. As with other states in Central Asia, by the second half of the 19th century Khiva became a target of the expanding Russian Empire, which conquered Khorezm in 1873. While the tsarist state initially preserved a portion of the khanate under Qongrat rule as a protectorate, after the Bolshevik Revolution this state was soon dissolved and absorbed into the Soviet Union.

scholarly journals A late-winter to early-spring temperature reconstruction for southeastern Norway from 1758 to 2006

2007 ◽  
Vol 46 ◽  
pp. 404-408 ◽  
Author(s):  
Ø. Nordli ◽  
E. Lundstad ◽  
A.E.J. Ogilvie
Keyword(s):  
20Th Century ◽  
19Th Century ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
Temperature Reconstruction ◽  
Early Spring ◽  
Late Winter ◽  
Spring Temperature ◽  
Early 19Th Century ◽  
The Mean ◽  
The 19Th Century

AbstractSystematic temperature observations were not undertaken in Norway until the early 19th century, and even then only sporadically. Climate-proxy data may be used to reconstruct temperatures before this period, but until now there have not been any climate proxies available for late winter. This situation has recently changed, as a diary containing historical ice break-up data from a farm near lake Randsfjord in southeastern Norway has been discovered. These data, together with observations from lake Mjøsa in the same region, make it possible to reconstruct temperature back to 1758. The reconstructed series, combined with instrumental series from the area near the lake, were merged into one composite time series covering the period 1758–2006. The lowest temperatures are seen during the Dalton sunspot minimum in the early 19th century. The 20th century was 1.3˚C warmer than the 19th century, whereas the 19th century was 0.4˚C warmer than the last 43 years of the 18th century. During the period 1758–1850, the mean temperature was 1.4˚C lower than the mean value of the 20th century. The warmth observed in the 1990s and at the start of the 21st century is unprecedented during the whole series.

scholarly journals Evolution of epidemiological thought in medicine taking into account the evolution of Polish epidemiology in the 20th century

2020 ◽  
pp. 169-179
Author(s):  
Renata E. Paliga
Keyword(s):  
20Th Century ◽  
19Th Century ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
The United States ◽  
Epidemiological Studies ◽  
Population Based ◽  
Communicable Diseases ◽  
Non Communicable Diseases ◽  
Administrative Services ◽  
The 19Th Century

Communicable diseases have accompanied humanity since the beginning of its existence. The first descriptions of diseases appeared in the 8th century B.C. in the Iliad, Homer. Epidemics of communicable diseases were often described in social context by poets, historians, and chroniclers. Medicine as a science until the 19th century could not provide answers concerning the aetiology of epidemic diseases or propose therapies with measurable benefits. For centuries the fight against epidemics was the duty of administrative services. Quarantine, isolation (including forced isolation), sanitary cordons, and disinfection procedures involving the moxibustion, burning of objects, clothing and bodies, etc. were introduced very early on. The knowledge of practical measures taken during repeated epidemics of various communicable diseases in Europe laid the foundations for the development of social medicine in the 18th century. In the 19th century, methods such as statistics, comparison of patient groups, mathematics and others were introduced to assess the effectiveness of prophylactic and therapeutic measures. In the 19th century it became possible to distinguish a new science – epidemiology. The missing element was the so-called “bacteriological breakthrough”. After the discovery and description of bacteria, there was a tumultuous development of bacteriology, vaccines were created and huge financial resources were allocated to bacteriological institutes. After extensive use of chemotherapeutics and antibiotics, it turned out in the mid-20th century that the mortality from communicable diseasesis statistically lower in some countries than in others.In the 1940s, population-based cardiological studies using epidemiological patterns were introduced in the United States, and in the 1950s epidemiological congresses worldwide accepted that it was reasonable for epidemiology to investigate the occurrence and causes of communicable and non-communicable diseases. In Poland, in 1964, at the 4th Congress of the Polish Society of Epidemiologists and Doctors of Infectious Diseases in Cracow, a decision was made to extend epidemiological studies to non-communicable diseases.

scholarly journals Spain vs Portugal: the turbulent past and the complicated present

2018 ◽  
pp. 14-21
Author(s):  
Alexey Dementiev
Keyword(s):  
20Th Century ◽  
19Th Century ◽  
Middle Ages ◽  
Economic Integration ◽  
16Th Century ◽  
Economic Decline ◽  
Territorial Expansion ◽  
Road Infrastructure ◽  
Railway Networks ◽  
The 19Th Century

Spain and Portugal – Iberian neighbors joined by the peninsular geography and disjoint by historical avatars. The Middle Ages were riddled with wars, domination and mutual resistance. The 16th century is characterized by marine splendor and territorial expansion of both nations that for the dynastic reasons lived through a controversial period of “Iberian Union” (1580–1640). In later times they had many coincidences: political and economic decline in the 17-18th centuries, fruitless revolutions of liberal court in the 19th century, fall of monarchies and existence of dictatorial regimes in the 20th century. In an almost simultaneous way (in the middle of the 70s) both countries initiated the transition towards democracy. From the 1st of January, 1986, Spain and Portugal turned into partners in the European space. At present Spain and Portugal are two of the European associates with major economic integration. Nevertheless, controversies as for maritime delimitation, ecology, shared use of water, energy, railway networks and road infrastructure exist between them. Despite a significant approach in many spheres it is not an easy matter to forget the traditional mistrust. Still there persists a suspicion of the Portuguese towards the Spanish and the Spanish indifference towards Portugal.

Sign in / Sign up

Export Citation Format

Share Document