Space Biology Research and Biosensor Technologies: Past, Present, and Future

In light of future missions beyond low Earth orbit (LEO) and the potential establishment of bases on the Moon and Mars, the effects of the deep space environment on biology need to be examined in order to develop protective countermeasures. Although many biological experiments have been performed in space since the 1960s, most have occurred in LEO and for only short periods of time. These LEO missions have studied many biological phenomena in a variety of model organisms, and have utilized a broad range of technologies. However, given the constraints of the deep space environment, upcoming deep space biological missions will be largely limited to microbial organisms and plant seeds using miniaturized technologies. Small satellites such as CubeSats are capable of querying relevant space environments using novel, miniaturized instruments and biosensors. CubeSats also provide a low-cost alternative to larger, more complex missions, and require minimal crew support, if any. Several have been deployed in LEO, but the next iterations of biological CubeSats will travel beyond LEO. They will utilize biosensors that can better elucidate the effects of the space environment on biology, allowing humanity to return safely to deep space, venturing farther than ever before.

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Developing Technologies for Biological Experiments in Deep Space

Proceedings ◽

10.3390/iecb2020-07085 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 60 (1) ◽

pp. 28 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Elizabeth M. Hawkins ◽

Ada Kanapskyte ◽

Sergio R. Santa Maria

Keyword(s):

Low Cost ◽

Model Organism ◽

Low Earth Orbit ◽

Space Environment ◽

Model Organisms ◽

Biological Study ◽

The Moon ◽

Deep Space ◽

Biological Phenomena ◽

Space Environments

In light of an upcoming series of missions beyond low Earth orbit (LEO) through NASA’s Artemis program and the potential establishment of bases on the Moon and Mars, the effects of the deep space environment on biology need to be examined and protective countermeasures need to be developed. Even though many biological experiments have been performed in space since the 1960s, most of them have occurred in LEO and for only short periods of time. These LEO missions have studied many biological phenomena in a variety of model organisms, as well as utilized a broad range of technologies. Given the constraints of the deep space environment, however, future deep space biological missions will be limited to microbial organisms using miniaturized technologies. Small satellites like CubeSats are capable of querying relevant space environments using novel instruments and biosensors. CubeSats also provide a low-cost alternative to more complex and larger missions, and require minimal crew support, if any. Several have been deployed in LEO, but the next iteration of biological CubeSats will go farther. BioSentinel will be the first interplanetary CubeSat and the first biological study NASA has sent beyond Earth’s magnetosphere in 50 years. BioSentinel is an autonomous free-flyer platform able to support biology and to investigate the effects of radiation on a model organism in interplanetary deep space. The BioSensor payload contained within the free-flyer is also an adaptable instrument that can perform biologically relevant measurements with different microorganisms and in multiple space environments, including the ISS, lunar gateway, and on the surface of the Moon. Nanosatellites like BioSentinel can be used to study the effects of both reduced gravity and space radiation and can house different organisms or biosensors to answer specific scientific questions. Utilizing these biosensors will allow us to better understand the effects of the space environment on biology so humanity may return safely to deep space and venture farther than ever before.

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Design, Implementation, and Operation of a Small Satellite Mission to Explore the Space Weather Effects in LEO

Aerospace ◽

10.3390/aerospace6100108 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 6 (10) ◽

pp. 108 ◽

Cited By ~ 4

Author(s):

Isai Fajardo ◽

Aleksander Lidtke ◽

Sidi Bendoukha ◽

Jesus Gonzalez-Llorente ◽

Rafael Rodríguez ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Space Weather ◽

Low Cost ◽

Low Earth Orbit ◽

Space Environment ◽

Small Satellite ◽

Satellite Mission ◽

Particle Detectors ◽

Small Satellites ◽

Environment Effects ◽

Institute Of Technology

Ten-Koh is a 23.5 kg, low-cost satellite developed to conduct space environment effects research in low-Earth orbit (LEO). Ten-Koh was developed primarily by students of the Kyushu Institute of Technology (Kyutech) and launched on 29 October 2018 on-board HII-A rocket F40, as a piggyback payload of JAXA’s Greenhouse gas Observing Satellite (GOSAT-2). The satellite carries a double Langmuir probe, CMOS-based particle detectors and a Liulin spectrometer as main payloads. This paper reviews the design of the mission, specifies the exact hardware used, and outlines the implementation and operation phases of the project. This work is intended as a reference that other aspiring satellite developers may use to increase their chances of success. Such a reference is expected to be particularly useful to other university teams, which will likely face the same challenges as the Ten-Koh team at Kyutech. Various on-orbit failures of the satellite are also discussed here in order to help avoid them in future small spacecraft. Applicability of small satellites to conduct space-weather research is also illustrated on the Ten-Koh example, which carried out simultaneous measurements with JAXA’s ARASE satellite.

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Guidance Stabilization of Satellites Using the Geomagnetic Field

International Journal of Aerospace Engineering ◽

10.1155/2012/231935 ◽

2012 ◽

Vol 2012 ◽

pp. 1-9

Author(s):

Francisco Miranda

Keyword(s):

Geomagnetic Field ◽

Technological Development ◽

Low Cost ◽

Low Earth Orbit ◽

Earth Orbit ◽

Small Satellites ◽

Attitude Stabilization ◽

Short Period ◽

Low Earth Orbit Satellite ◽

Games Theory

In the last years the small satellites have played an important role in the technological development. The attractive short period of design and low cost of them and the capacity to solve problems that are usually considered as problems to big and expensive spacecrafts lead us to study the control problem of these satellites. Active three-axis magnetic attitude stabilization of a low Earth orbit satellite is considered in this work. The control is created by interaction between the magnetic moment generated by magnetorquers mounted on the satellite body and the geomagnetic field. This problem is quite complex and difficult to solve. To overcome this difficulty guidance control is considered, where we use ε-strategies introduced by Pontryagin in the frame of differential games theory. Qualitative analysis and results of numerical simulation are presented.

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End of Life and Beginning of Life Thermal Analysis of a Micro Satellite

Applied Mechanics and Materials ◽

10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.798.551 ◽

2015 ◽

Vol 798 ◽

pp. 551-555

Author(s):

Mustafa Turkmenoglu

Keyword(s):

Thermal Analysis ◽

Thermal Degradation ◽

End Of Life ◽

Satellite Orbit ◽

Thermal Control ◽

Low Earth Orbit ◽

Space Environment ◽

Bottom Surface ◽

Solar Panels ◽

Space Environments

Satellites with passive thermal control system use thermal coatings, secondary and first surface mirrors and paints to maintain the temperatures of their electronic equipment within operating temperatures. Satellite coatings are exposed to harsh space environments like ultraviolet radiation (UV) and atomic oxygen (AO) that cause thermal degradation. As nature of the space environment, degradation of the surface paints and coatings cause increase in temperatures of the equipment in time. Thermal designer must consider the thermal degradation of the coatings and paints and optimize the radiator sizes of the satellite at Beginning of Life (BOL) and End of Life (EOL) of the satellite in order to maintain the temperatures of equipment within their safe operation limits. For this analysis, a micro-class satellite using passive thermal control with surface paints and interface conductance within each equipment has been studied. The satellite top surface (+Z) faces the earth and bottom surface (-Z) faces deep space. The lateral sides of the satellite are covered with honeycomb solar panels and top and bottom surfaces are covered with white paint which act as satellite radiator. The satellite orbit has been considered as 700 km Sun-Synchronous Low Earth Orbit. In this analysis BOL and EOL thermo optical properties have been used to predict the satellite temperatures before and after degradation of paints. Thermal analysis have been performed and predicted temperatures obtained by using THERMICA thermal analysis software.

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LATLAUNCH AIR-LAUNCH SYSTEM FOR LOW-COST LAUNCHING OF SMALL SATELLITES INTO LOW EARTH ORBIT

Aviation ◽

10.3846/aviation.2021.12382 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 25 (2) ◽

pp. 73-78

Author(s):

Aleksandrs Urbahs ◽

Sergey Kravchenko ◽

Margarita Urbaha ◽

Kristine Carjova ◽

Natalja Panova ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Low Cost ◽

Low Earth Orbit ◽

Earth Orbit ◽

Competitive Advantages ◽

Characteristic Velocity ◽

Small Satellites ◽

Aerial Platform

The paper presents the air-launch system enabling the delivery of small satellites into low Earth orbit. One of the most important advantages of the concept is its cost. Generally, the paper proves that launching a carrier from an aerial platform (a movable launch pad) provides the whole range of competitive advantages. In particular, the total losses during the launch from an aerial platform will reduce by 20–35%, and the characteristic velocity of the maneuver will reduce by 4–7%.

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Ballooning for Biologists: Mission Essentials for Flying Life Science Experiments to Near Space on NASA Large Scientific Balloons

Gravitational and Space Research ◽

10.2478/gsr-2017-0005 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 5 (1) ◽

pp. 52-73 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

David J. Smith ◽

Marianne B. Sowa

Keyword(s):

Radiation Effects ◽

Low Earth Orbit ◽

Particle Accelerator ◽

Space Environment ◽

Space Biology ◽

Biologically Relevant ◽

Near Space ◽

The Earth ◽

Large Balloon ◽

Biology Research

AbstractDespite centuries of scientific balloon flights, only a handful of experiments have produced biologically relevant results. Yet unlike orbital spaceflight, it is much faster and cheaper to conduct biology research with balloons, sending specimens to the near space environment of Earth's stratosphere. Samples can be loaded the morning of a launch and sometimes returned to the laboratory within one day after flying. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) flies large unmanned scientific balloons from all over the globe, with missions ranging from hours to weeks in duration. A payload in the middle portion of the stratosphere (~35 km above sea level) will be exposed to an environment similar to the surface of Mars—temperatures generally around −36°C, atmospheric pressure at a thin 1 kPa, relative humidity levels <1%, and harsh illumination of ultraviolet (UV) and cosmic radiation levels (about 100 W/m2 and 0.1 mGy/d, respectively)—that can be obtained nowhere else on the surface of the Earth, including environmental chambers and particle accelerator facilities attempting to simulate space radiation effects. Considering the operational advantages of ballooning and the fidelity of space-like stressors in the stratosphere, researchers in aerobiology, astrobiology, and space biology can benefit from balloon flight experiments as an intermediary step on the extraterrestrial continuum (i.e., ground, low Earth orbit, and deep space studies). Our review targets biologists with no background or experience in scientific ballooning. We will provide an overview of large balloon operations, biology topics that can be uniquely addressed in the stratosphere, and a roadmap for developing payloads to fly with NASA.

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Space Based Applications for FEA Cathodes (FEAC)

MRS Proceedings ◽

10.1557/proc-621-r4.8.1 ◽

2000 ◽

Vol 621 ◽

Cited By ~ 3

Author(s):

B. E. Gilchrist ◽

U. Michigan ◽

Ann Arbor ◽

K. L. Jensen ◽

A. D. Gallimore ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Low Power ◽

Electric Propulsion ◽

Low Cost ◽

Zirconium Carbide ◽

Low Earth Orbit ◽

Space Environment ◽

Space Applications ◽

Field Emitter ◽

Cold Cathodes ◽

Field Emitter Arrays

ABSTRACTCold cathodes such as field emitter arrays offer the potential to benefit or enable space-based applications of critical commercial, government, or military importance by providing an electron source that is low power, low cost, requires no consumables, potentially robust as well as highly reliable. Applications that would especially benefit from such cold cathodes include low power electric propulsion (EP) thruster technology, electrodyanamic tethers (ED) for propellantless propulsion in low-Earth orbit, and spacecraft negative potential charge control. In controlled environments, field emitter arrays have shown substantial capability, but have failed in harsher environments more typical of space applications. We argue that a combination of localized arc suppression coupled with a low work function, but nevertheless robust, coating such as zirconium carbide would provide the needed ruggedness to withstand energetic ions, oxygen fluxes, and adsorbates typical of a spacecraft environment. We have found that arc-protected and coated FEACs that can operate in a 1-10 microTorr pressure environment with current densities of less than 0.1 Amps/cm^2 and gate voltages between 50-100 Volts, would enable reliable, lowcost devices capable of operating in the required space environment.

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Dynamic Characterization of a High-Altitude Balloon during a Flight Campaign for the Detection of ISM Radio Background in the Stratosphere

Aerospace ◽

10.3390/aerospace8010021 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 8 (1) ◽

pp. 21

Author(s):

Matteo Gemignani ◽

Salvo Marcuccio

Keyword(s):

Low Cost ◽

Low Earth Orbit ◽

Space Environment ◽

Dynamic Characterization ◽

Operational Environment ◽

Near Space ◽

Radio Background ◽

Operational Phase ◽

Radio Measurements

Sounding balloons, available at very low cost from commercial vendors and operable with minimal training, have an excellent potential as testing platforms in the near-space environment. The work reported here was motivated by the need to perform an experimental assessment of the radio frequency (RF) background present in the ISM (Industrial, Scientific and Medical) bands, namely 868 MHz (Ultra High Frequency—UHF) and 2.4 GHz (S-Band), simulating the operational environment of a Low Earth Orbit (LEO) constellation forInternet of Things (IoT) telecommunications. To this end, five balloons were flown with a dedicated RF payload. Along with the radio measurements, the flights provided a convenient opportunity to collect data on the dynamic behavior of the payload gondola. We report on the system design and the operational phase of the mission, and discuss the data collected throughout the successful flight campaign. As a result, a preliminary understanding of the gondola dynamics has been gained, including both linear accelerations and attitude oscillations. It is also concluded that the two ISM bands considered are actually suitable for IoT ground-to-LEO links.

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QUARC: Quantum Research Cubesat—A Constellation for Quantum Communication

Cryptography ◽

10.3390/cryptography4010007 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 4 (1) ◽

pp. 7 ◽

Cited By ~ 2

Author(s):

Luca Mazzarella ◽

Christopher Lowe ◽

David Lowndes ◽

Siddarth Koduru Joshi ◽

Steve Greenland ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Secure Communication ◽

Meteorological Data ◽

Low Cost ◽

Key Distribution ◽

Low Earth Orbit ◽

Long Distance ◽

Small Satellites ◽

Orbital Parameters ◽

The Uk ◽

Atmospheric Channel

Quantum key distribution (QKD) offers future proof security based on fundamental laws of physics. Long-distance QKD spanning regions such as the United Kingdom (UK) may employ a constellation of satellites. Small satellites, CubeSats in particular, in low Earth orbit are a relatively low-cost alternative to traditional, large platforms. They allow the deployment of a large number of spacecrafts, ensuring greater coverage and mitigating some of the risk associated with availability due to cloud cover. We present our mission analysis showing how a constellation comprising 15 low-cost 6U CubeSats can be used to form a secure communication backbone for ground-based and metropolitan networks across the UK. We have estimated the monthly key rates at 43 sites across the UK, incorporating local meteorological data, atmospheric channel modelling and orbital parameters. We have optimized the constellation topology for rapid revisit and thus low-latency key distribution.

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An FPGA-Based Hardware Accelerator for CNNs Inference on Board Satellites: Benchmarking with Myriad 2-Based Solution for the CloudScout Case Study

Remote Sensing ◽

10.3390/rs13081518 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 13 (8) ◽

pp. 1518

Author(s):

Emilio Rapuano ◽

Gabriele Meoni ◽

Tommaso Pacini ◽

Gianmarco Dinelli ◽

Gianluca Furano ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Power Consumption ◽

Power Efficiency ◽

Low Cost ◽

European Space Agency ◽

Low Earth Orbit ◽

Space Environment ◽

Hardware Accelerator ◽

Cloud Detection ◽

Space Agency ◽

Field Programmable

In recent years, research in the space community has shown a growing interest in Artificial Intelligence (AI), mostly driven by systems miniaturization and commercial competition. In particular, the application of Deep Learning (DL) techniques on board Earth Observation (EO) satellites might lead to numerous advantages in terms of mitigation of downlink bandwidth constraints, costs, and increment of the satellite autonomy. In this framework, the CloudScout project, funded by the European Space Agency (ESA), represents the first time in-orbit demonstration of a Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) applied to hyperspectral images for cloud detection. The first instance of this use case has been done with an INTEL Myriad 2 VPU on board a CubeSat optimized for low cost, size, and power efficiency. Nevertheless, this solution introduces multiple drawbacks due to its design not specifically being for the space environment, thus limiting its applicability to short-lifetime Low Earth Orbit (LEO) applications. The current work provides a benchmark between the Myriad 2 and our custom hardware accelerator designed for Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs). The metrics used for comparison include inference time, power consumption, space qualification, and components. The obtained results show that the FPGA-based solution is characterized by a reduced inference time, and a higher possibility of customization, but at the cost of greater power consumption and a longer Time to Market. As a conclusion, the proposed approach might extend the potential market of DL-based solutions to long-term LEO or interplanetary exploration missions through deployment on space-qualified FPGAs, with a limited cost in energy efficiency.

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