scholarly journals Insecticide Resistance Profiling of Anopheles coluzzii and Anopheles gambiae Populations in the Southern Senegal: Role of Target Sites and Metabolic Resistance Mechanisms

Genes ◽  
2020 ◽  
Vol 11 (12) ◽  
pp. 1403
Author(s):  
Oumou. K. Gueye ◽  
Magellan Tchouakui ◽  
Abdoulaye K. Dia ◽  
Mouhamed B. Faye ◽  
Amblat A. Ahmed ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Insecticide Resistance ◽  
Anopheles Gambiae ◽  
Resistance Mechanisms ◽  
Target Site ◽  
World Health ◽  
Anopheles Coluzzii ◽  
Partial Recovery ◽  
Metabolic Resistance ◽  
Genes Expression ◽  
Main Target

The emergence and spread of insecticide resistance among the main malaria vectors is threatening the effectiveness of vector control interventions in Senegal. The main drivers of this resistance in the Anopheles gambiae complex (e.g., An. gambiae and Anopheles coluzzii) remains poorly characterized in Senegal. Here we characterized the main target site and metabolic resistances mechanisms among the An. gambiae and An. coluzzii populations from their sympatric and allopatric or predominance area in Senegal. Larvae and pupae of An. gambiae s.l. were collected, reared to adulthood, and then used for insecticides susceptibility and synergist assays using the WHO (World Health Organisation) test kits for adult mosquitoes. The TaqMan method was used for the molecular characterization of the main target site insecticide resistance mechanisms (Vgsc-1014F, Vgsc-1014S, N1575Y and G119S). A RT-qPCR (Reverse Transcriptase-quantitative Polymerase Chaine Reaction) was performed to estimate the level of genes expression belonging to the CYP450 (Cytochrome P450) family. Plasmodium infection rate was investigated using TaqMan method. High levels of resistance to pyrethroids and DDT and full susceptibility to organophosphates and carbamates where observed in all three sites, excepted a probable resistance to bendiocarb in Kedougou. The L1014F, L1014S, and N1575Y mutations were found in both species. Pre-exposure to the PBO (Piperonyl butoxide) synergist induced a partial recovery of susceptibility to permethrin and full recovery to deltamethrin. Subsequent analysis of the level of genes expression, revealed that the CYP6Z1 and CYP6Z2 genes were over-expressed in wild-resistant mosquitoes compared to the reference susceptible strain (Kisumu), suggesting that both the metabolic resistance and target site mutation involving kdr mutations are likely implicated in this pyrethroid resistance. The presence of both target-site and metabolic resistance mechanisms in highly pyrethroid-resistant populations of An. gambiae s.l. from Senegal threatens the effectiveness and the sustainability of the pyrethroid-based tools and interventions currently deployed in the country. The Kdr-west mutation is widely widespread in An. coluzzii sympatric population. PBO or Duo nets and IRS (Indoor Residual Spraying) with organophosphates could be used as an alternative measure to sustain malaria control in the study area.

scholarly journals Phenotypic Insecticide Resistance in Anopheles gambiae (Diptera: Culicidae): Specific Characterization of Underlying Resistance Mechanisms Still Matters

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Adandé A Medjigbodo ◽  
Luc S Djogbenou ◽  
Aubin A Koumba ◽  
Laurette Djossou ◽  
Athanase Badolo ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Insecticide Resistance ◽  
Anopheles Gambiae ◽  
Resistance Mechanisms ◽  
Malaria Vectors ◽  
Effective Control ◽  
Anopheles Coluzzii ◽  
Anopheles Gambiae S.S ◽  
Diagnostic Dose ◽  
Pirimiphos Methyl ◽  
Old Adult

Abstract An effective control of malaria vectors requires an extensive knowledge of mechanisms underlying the resistance-phenotypes developed by these vectors against insecticides. We investigated Anopheles gambiae mosquitoes from Benin and Togo for their intensity of insecticide resistance and we discussed the involvement of genotyped mechanisms in the resistance-phenotypes observed. Three- to five-day-old adult mosquitoes emerged from field and laboratory An. gambiae larvae were assayed using WHO tube intensity tests against various doses of deltamethrin: 1× (0.05%); 2× (0.1%); 5× (0.25%); 7.5× (0.375%) and those of pirimiphos-methyl: 0.5× (0.125%); 1× (0.25%). Members of An. gambiae complex were screened in field populations using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays. The presence of kdrR(1014F/1014S) and ace-1R(119S) mutations was also investigated using TaqMan and PCR-RFLP techniques, respectively. Anopheles gambiae from field were very resistant to deltamethrin, whereas KisKdr and AcerKdrKis strains displayed 100% mortality rates at 2× the diagnostic dose. In contrast, the field mosquitoes displayed a low resistance-intensity against 1× the diagnostic dose of pirimiphos-methyl, whereas AcerKis and AcerKdrKis strains showed susceptibility at 0.5× the diagnostic dose. Anopheles gambiae s.s., Anopheles coluzzii, and Anopheles arabiensis were identified. Allelic frequencies of kdrR (1014F) and ace-1R (119S) mutations in the field populations varied from 0.65 to 1 and 0 to 0.84, respectively. The field An. gambiae displayed high-resistance levels against deltamethrin and pirimiphos-methyl when compared with those of the laboratory An. gambiae-resistant strains. These results exhibit the complexity of underlying insecticide resistance mechanisms in these field malaria vectors.

scholarly journals Malaria Transmission, Vector Diversity, and Insecticide Resistance at a Peri-Urban Site in the Forest Zone of Ghana

2021 ◽  
Vol 2 ◽  
Author(s):  
Yaw Akuamoah-Boateng ◽  
Ruth C. Brenyah ◽  
Sandra A. Kwarteng ◽  
Patrick Obuam ◽  
Isaac Owusu-Frimpong ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Insecticide Resistance ◽  
Anopheles Gambiae ◽  
Malaria Transmission ◽  
Urban Setting ◽  
World Health ◽  
Malaria Vectors ◽  
Urban Site ◽  
Human Landing Catch ◽  
Anopheles Coluzzii ◽  
Anopheles Gambiae S.S

IntroductionRecent surge of Anopheles resistance to major classes of World Health Organization (WHO)-approved insecticides globally necessitates the need for information about local malaria vector populations. It is believed that insecticide efficacy loss may lead to operational failure of control interventions and an increase in malaria infection transmission. We investigated the susceptibility levels of malaria vectors to all classes of WHO-approved vector control insecticides and described the dynamics of malaria transmission in a peri-urban setting.MethodsFit 3–5-day-old adults that emerged from Anopheles larvae collected from several different sites in the study area were subjected to the WHO bioassay for detecting insecticide resistance. The knockdown resistance gene (kdr) mutations within the vector populations were detected using PCR. Entomological inoculation rates were determined using the human landing catch technique and Plasmodium falciparum circumsporozoite ELISA.ResultsThe malaria vectors from the study area were resistant to all classes of insecticides tested. Out of the 284 Anopheles complex specimen assayed for the resistance study, 265 (93.30%) were identified as Anopheles gambiae s.s. The kdr gene was detected in 90% of the Anopheles gambiae s.s. assayed. In an area where Anopheles coluzzii resistance to insecticides had never been reported, the kdr gene was detected in 78% of the Anopheles coluzzii sampled. The entomological inoculation rate (EIR) for the dry season was 1.44 ib/m/n, whereas the EIR for the rainy season was 2.69 ib/m/n.ConclusionsThis study provides information on the high parasite inoculation rate and insecticide resistance of malaria vectors in a peri-urban community, which is critical in the development of an insecticide resistance management program for the community.

scholarly journals Insecticide resistance selection and reversal in two strains of Aedes aegypti

2020 ◽  
Vol 5 ◽  
pp. 183
Author(s):  
Jonathan Thornton ◽  
Bruno Gomes ◽  
Constância Ayres ◽  
Lisa Reimer
Keyword(s):  
Aedes Aegypti ◽  
Insecticide Resistance ◽  
Vector Competence ◽  
Resistance Mechanisms ◽  
Target Site ◽  
Metabolic Resistance ◽  
Resistance Selection ◽  
Similar Phenotype ◽  
Target Site Resistance ◽  
Homozygous Resistant

Background: Laboratory reared mosquito colonies are essential tools to understand insecticide action. However, they differ considerably from wild populations and from each other depending on their origin and rearing conditions, which makes studying the effects of specific resistance mechanisms difficult. This paper describes our methods for establishing multiple resistant strains of Aedes aegypti from two colonies as a new resource for further research on metabolic and target site resistance. Methods: Two resistant colonies of Ae. aegypti, from Cayman and Recife, were selected through 10 generations of exposure to insecticides including permethrin, malathion and temephos, to yield eight strains with different profiles of resistance due to either target site or metabolic resistance. Resistance ratios for each insecticide were calculated for the selected and unselected strains. The frequency of kdr alleles in the Cayman strains was determined using TaqMan assays. A comparative gene expression analysis among Recife strains was conducted using qPCR in larvae (CCae3A, CYP6N12, CYP6F3, CYP9M9) and adults (CCae3A, CYP6N12, CYP6BB2, CYP9J28a). Results: In the selected strain of Cayman, mortality against permethrin reduced almost to 0% and kdr became fixated by 5 generations. A similar phenotype was seen in the unselected homozygous resistant colony, whilst mortality in the susceptible homozygous colony rose to 82.9%. The Recife strains showed different responses between exposure to adulticide and larvicide, with detoxification genes in the temephos selected strain staying similar to the baseline, but a reduction in detoxification genes displayed in the other strains. Conclusions: These selected strains, with a range of insecticide resistance phenotypes and genotypes, will support further research on the effects of target-site and/or metabolic resistance mechanisms on various life-history traits, behaviours and vector competence of this important arbovirus vector.

scholarly journals Potential Metabolic Resistance Mechanisms to Ivermectin in Anopheles Gambiae: A Synergist Bioassay Study

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Patricia Nicolas ◽  
Caroline Kiuru ◽  
Martin Wagah ◽  
Martha Muturi ◽  
Urs Duthaler ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Cytochrome P450 ◽  
Anopheles Gambiae ◽  
Control Strategies ◽  
Resistance Mechanisms ◽  
World Health ◽  
Malaria Vectors ◽  
Malaria Vector Control ◽  
Cytochrome P450 Enzymes ◽  
Metabolic Resistance ◽  
Active Efflux

Abstract Background Despite remarkable success obtained with current malaria vector control strategies in the last 15 years, additional innovative measures will be needed to achieve the ambitious goals set for 2030 by the World Health Organization (WHO). New tools will need to address insecticide resistance and residual transmission as key challenges. Endectocides such as ivermectin are drugs that kill mosquitoes which feed on treated subjects. Mass administration of ivermectin can effectively target outdoor and early biting vectors, complementing the still effective conventional tools. Although this approach has garnered attention, development of ivermectin resistance is a potential pitfall. Herein, we evaluate the potential role of xenobiotic pumps and cytochrome P450 enzymes in protecting mosquitoes against ivermectin by active efflux and metabolic detoxification, respectively. Methods We determined the lethal-concentration 50 for ivermectin in colonized Anopheles gambiae, then we used chemical inhibitors and inducers of xenobiotic pumps and cytochrome P450 enzymes in combination with ivermectin to probe the mechanism of ivermectin detoxification. Results Dual inhibition of xenobiotic pumps and cytochromes have a synergistic effect with ivermectin, greatly increasing mosquito mortality. Inhibition of xenobiotic pumps alone had no effect on ivermectin-induced mortality. Induction of xenobiotic pumps and cytochromes may confer partial protection from ivermectin.Conclusion there is a clear pathway for development of ivermectin resistance in malaria vectors. Detoxification mechanisms mediated by cytochrome P450 enzymes are more important than xenobiotic pumps in protecting mosquitoes against ivermectin.

scholarly journals Genetic variation at the Cyp6m2 putative insecticide resistance locus in Anopheles gambiae and Anopheles coluzzii

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Martin G. Wagah ◽  
Petra Korlević ◽  
Christopher Clarkson ◽  
Alistair Miles ◽  
Mara K. N. Lawniczak ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Genetic Variation ◽  
Insecticide Resistance ◽  
Anopheles Gambiae ◽  
Metabolic Activity ◽  
High Frequency ◽  
Cross Resistance ◽  
Resistance Locus ◽  
Anopheles Coluzzii ◽  
Metabolic Resistance ◽  
Enzymatic Function

AbstractBackgroundThe emergence of insecticide resistance is a major threat to malaria control programmes in Africa, with many different factors contributing to insecticide resistance in its vectors, Anopheles mosquitoes. CYP6M2 has previously been recognized as an important candidate in cytochrome P450-mediated detoxification in Anopheles mosquitoes. As it has been implicated in resistance against pyrethroids, organochlorines and carbamates, its broad metabolic activity makes it a potential agent in insecticide cross-resistance. Currently, allelic variation within the Cyp6m2 gene remains unknown.ResultsHere, we use Illumina whole-genome sequence data from Phase 2 of the Anopheles gambiae 1000 Genomes Project (Ag1000G) to examine genetic variation in the Cyp6m2 gene across 16 populations in 13 countries comprising Anopheles gambiae and Anopheles coluzzii mosquitoes. We find 15 missense biallelic substitutions at high frequency (defined as >5% frequency in one or more populations), that fall into five distinct haplotype groups that carry the main high frequency variants: A13T, D65A, E328Q, Y347F, I359V and A468S. We examine whether these alleles show evidence of selection either through potentially modified enzymatic function or by being linked to variants that change the transcriptional profile of the gene. Despite consistent reports of Cyp6m2 upregulation and metabolic activity in insecticide resistant Anophelines, we find no evidence of directional selection occurring on these variants or on the haplotype clusters in which they are found.ConclusionOur results imply that emerging resistance associated with Cyp6m2 is potentially driven by distant regulatory loci such as transcriptional factors rather than by its missense variants, or that other genes are playing a more significant role in conferring metabolic resistance.

scholarly journals Genome-wide gene expression profiling reveals that cuticle alterations and P450 detoxification are associated with pyrethroid resistance in Anopheles arabiensis populations from Ethiopia

2018 ◽  
Author(s):  
Eba Alemayehu Simma ◽  
Wannes Dermauw ◽  
Vasileia Balabanidou ◽  
Simon Snoeck ◽  
Astrid Bryon ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Insecticide Resistance ◽  
Anopheles Arabiensis ◽  
Pyrethroid Resistance ◽  
Resistance Mutation ◽  
Resistance Mechanisms ◽  
Target Site ◽  
Malaria Vectors ◽  
Metabolic Resistance ◽  
Genome Wide ◽  
Target Site Resistance

AbstractBACKGROUNDVector control is the main intervention in malaria control and elimination strategies. However, the development of insecticide resistance is one of the major challenges for controlling malaria vectors. Anopheles arabiensis populations in Ethiopia showed resistance against both DDT and the pyrethroid deltamethrin. Although a L1014F target-site resistance mutation was present in the voltage gated sodium channel of investigated populations, the levels of resistance and biochemical studies indicated the presence of additional resistance mechanisms. In this study, we used genome-wide transcriptome profiling by RNAseq to assess differentially expressed genes between three deltamethrin and DDT resistant An. arabiensis field populations (Tolay, Asendabo, Chewaka) and two susceptible strains (Sekoru and Mozambique).RESULTSBoth RNAseq analysis and RT-qPCR showed that a glutathione-S-transferase, gstd3, and a cytochrome P450 monooxygenase, cyp6p4, were significantly overexpressed in the group of resistant populations compared to the susceptible strains, suggesting that the enzymes they encode play a key role in metabolic resistance against deltamethrin or DDT. Furthermore, a gene ontology enrichment analysis showed that expression changes of cuticle related genes were strongly associated with insecticide resistance, although this did not translate in increased thickness of the procuticle.CONCLUSIONOur transcriptome sequencing of deltamethrin/DDT resistant An. arabiensis populations from Ethiopia suggests non-target site resistance mechanisms and pave the way for further investigation of the role of cuticle composition in resistance.

scholarly journals Insecticide resistance in Anopheles arabiensis populations from Dakar and its suburbs: role of target site and metabolic resistance mechanisms

2018 ◽  
Vol 17 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
A. Kane Dia ◽  
O. Kalsom Guèye ◽  
E. Amadou Niang ◽  
S. Mocote Diédhiou ◽  
M. Demba Sy ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Insecticide Resistance ◽  
Anopheles Arabiensis ◽  
Resistance Mechanisms ◽  
Target Site ◽  
Metabolic Resistance

scholarly journals Insecticide resistance in indoor and outdoor-resting Anopheles gambiae in Northern Ghana

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Majidah Hamid-Adiamoh ◽  
Alfred Amambua-Ngwa ◽  
Davis Nwakanma ◽  
Umberto D’Alessandro ◽  
Gordon A. Awandare ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Insecticide Resistance ◽  
Anopheles Gambiae ◽  
Northern Ghana ◽  
Malaria Vectors ◽  
Anopheles Coluzzii ◽  
Glutathione S Transferase ◽  
Metabolic Resistance ◽  
Phenotypic Resistance ◽  
Resting Behaviour ◽  
Outdoor Resting

Abstract Background Selection pressure from continued exposure to insecticides drives development of insecticide resistance and changes in resting behaviour of malaria vectors. There is need to understand how resistance drives changes in resting behaviour within vector species. The association between insecticide resistance and resting behaviour of Anopheles gambiae sensu lato (s.l.) in Northern Ghana was examined. Methods F1 progenies from adult mosquitoes collected indoors and outdoors were exposed to DDT, deltamethrin, malathion and bendiocarb using WHO insecticide susceptibility tests. Insecticide resistance markers including voltage-gated sodium channel (Vgsc)- 1014F, Vgsc-1014S, Vgsc-1575Y, glutathione-S-transferase epsilon 2 (GSTe2)-114T and acetylcholinesterase (Ace1)-119S, as well as blood meal sources were investigated using PCR methods. Activities of metabolic enzymes, acetylcholine esterase (AChE), non-specific β-esterases, glutathione-S-transferase (GST) and monooxygenases were measured from unexposed F1 progenies using microplate assays. Results Susceptibility of Anopheles coluzzii to deltamethrin 24hr post-exposure was significantly higher in indoor (mortality=5%) than outdoor (mortality=2.5%) populations (P=0.02). Mosquitoes were fully susceptible to malathion (mortality: indoor=98%, outdoor=100%). Susceptibility to DDT was significantly higher in outdoor (mortality=9%) than indoor (mortality=0%) mosquitoes (P=0.006). Mosquitoes were also found with suspected resistance to bendiocarb but mortality was not statistically different (mortality: indoor=90%, outdoor=95%. P=0.30). Frequencies of all resistance alleles were higher in F1 outdoor (0.11-0.85) than indoor (0.04-0.65) mosquito populations, while Vgsc-1014F in F0 An. gambiae sensu stricto (s.s) was significantly associated with outdoor-resting behaviour (P=0.01). Activities of non-specific β-esterase enzymes were significantly higher in outdoor than indoor mosquitoes (Mean enzyme activity: Outdoor=: 1.70/mg protein; Indoor=1.35/mg protein. P<0.0001). AChE activity was also more elevated in outdoor (0.62/mg protein) than indoor (0.57/mg protein) mosquitoes but this was not significant (P=0.08). Human blood index (HBI) was predominantly detected in indoor (18%) than outdoor mosquito populations (3%). Conclusions The overall results did not establish that there was a significant preference of resistant malaria vectors to solely rest indoors or outdoors, but varied depending on the resistant alleles present. Phenotypic resistance was higher in indoor than outdoor-resting mosquitoes, but genotypic and metabolic resistance levels were higher in outdoor than the indoor populations. Continued monitoring of changes in resting behaviour within An. gambiae s.l. populations is recommended.

scholarly journals Evolution of the Pyrethroids Target-Site Resistance Mechanisms in Senegal: Early Stage of the Vgsc-1014F and Vgsc-1014S Allelic Frequencies Shift

Genes ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 12 (12) ◽  
pp. 1948
Author(s):  
Moussa Diallo ◽  
Majidah Hamid-Adiamoh ◽  
Ousmane Sy ◽  
Pape Cheikh Sarr ◽  
Jarra Manneh ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Insecticide Resistance ◽  
Anopheles Gambiae ◽  
Pyrethroid Resistance ◽  
Early Stage ◽  
Resistance Mechanisms ◽  
Sub Saharan Africa ◽  
Malaria Vectors ◽  
Malaria Control Programme ◽  
Anopheles Coluzzii ◽  
Resistance Mutations

The evolution and spread of insecticide resistance mechanisms amongst malaria vectors across the sub-Saharan Africa threaten the effectiveness and sustainability of current insecticide-based vector control interventions. However, a successful insecticide resistance management plan relies strongly on evidence of historical and contemporary mechanisms circulating. This study aims to retrospectively determine the evolution and spread of pyrethroid resistance mechanisms among natural Anopheles gambiae s.l. populations in Senegal. Samples were randomly drawn from an existing mosquito sample, collected in 2013, 2017, and 2018 from 10 sentinel sites monitored by the Senegalese National Malaria Control Programme (NMCP). Molecular species of An. gambiae s.l. and the resistance mutations at the Voltage-gated Sodium Channel 1014 (Vgsc-1014) locus were characterised using PCR-based assays. The genetic diversity of the Vgsc gene was further analyzed by sequencing. The overall species composition revealed the predominance of Anopheles arabiensis (73.08%) followed by An. gambiae s.s. (14.48%), Anopheles coluzzii (10.94%) and Anopheles gambiae–coluzii hybrids (1.48%). Both Vgsc-1014F and Vgsc-1014S mutations were found in all studied populations with a spatial variation of allele frequencies from 3% to 90%; and 7% to 41%, respectively. The two mutations have been detected since 2013 across all the selected health districts, with Vgsc-L1014S frequency increasing over the years while Vgsc-1014F decreasing. At species level, the Vgsc-1014F and Vgsc-1014S alleles were more frequent amongst An. gambiae s.s. (70%) and An. arabiensis (20%). The Vgsc gene was found to be highly diversified with eight different haplotypes shared between Vgsc-1014F and Vgsc-1014S. The observed co-occurrence of Vgsc-1014F and Vgsc-1014S mutations suggest that pyrethroid resistance is becoming a widespread phenomenon amongst malaria vector populations, and the NMCP needs to address this issue to sustain the gain made in controlling malaria.

scholarly journals Insecticide resistance selection and reversal in two strains of Aedes aegypti

2020 ◽  
Vol 5 ◽  
pp. 183
Author(s):  
Jonathan Thornton ◽  
Bruno Gomes ◽  
Constância Ayres ◽  
Lisa Reimer
Keyword(s):  
Aedes Aegypti ◽  
Insecticide Resistance ◽  
Vector Competence ◽  
Resistance Mechanisms ◽  
Target Site ◽  
Metabolic Resistance ◽  
Resistance Selection ◽  
Similar Phenotype ◽  
Target Site Resistance ◽  
Homozygous Resistant

Background: Laboratory reared mosquito colonies are essential tools to understand insecticide action. However, they differ considerably from wild populations and from each other depending on their origin and rearing conditions, which makes studying the effects of specific resistance mechanisms difficult. This paper describes our methods for establishing multiple resistant strains of Aedes aegypti from two colonies as a new resource for further research on metabolic and target site resistance. Methods: Two resistant colonies of Ae. aegypti, from Cayman and Recife, were selected through 10 generations of exposure to insecticides including permethrin, malathion and temephos, to yield eight strains with different profiles of resistance due to either target site or metabolic resistance. Resistance ratios for each insecticide were calculated for the selected and unselected strains. The frequency of kdr alleles (F1534C and V1016I) in the Cayman strains was determined using TaqMan assays. A comparative gene expression analysis among Recife strains was conducted using qPCR in larvae (CCae3A, CYP6N12, CYP6F3, CYP9M9) and adults (CCae3A, CYP6N12, CYP6BB2, CYP9J28a). Results: In the selected strain of Cayman, mortality against permethrin reduced almost to 0% and kdr became fixated by 5 generations. A similar phenotype was seen in the unselected homozygous resistant colony, whilst mortality in the susceptible homozygous colony rose to 82.9%. The Recife strains showed different responses between exposure to adulticide and larvicide, with detoxification genes in the temephos selected strain staying similar to the baseline, but a reduction in detoxification genes displayed in the other strains. Conclusions: These selected strains, with a range of insecticide resistance phenotypes and genotypes, will support further research on the effects of target-site and/or metabolic resistance mechanisms on various life-history traits, behaviours and vector competence of this important arbovirus vector.

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