Sodium and Salt Consumption in Latin America and the Caribbean: A Systematic-Review and Meta-Analysis of Population-Based Studies and Surveys

Sodium/salt consumption is a risk factor for cardiovascular diseases. Although global targets to reduce salt intake have been established, current levels and trends of sodium consumption in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) are unknown. We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis of population-based studies in which sodium consumption was analyzed based on urine samples (24 hour samples or otherwise). The search was conducted in Medline, Embase, Global Health, Scopus and LILACS. From 2350 results, 53 were studied in detail, of which 15 reports were included, providing evidence for 18 studies. Most studies were from Brazil (7/18) and six collected 24 hour urine samples. In the random effects meta-analysis, 12 studies (29,875 people) were analyzed since 2010. The pooled mean 24 hour estimated sodium consumption was 4.13 g/day (10.49 g/day of salt). When only national surveys were analyzed, the pooled mean was 3.43 g/day (8.71 g/day of salt); when only community studies were analyzed the pooled mean was 4.39 g/day (11.15 g/day of salt). Studies had low risk of bias. The estimated 24 hour sodium consumption is more than twice the World Health Organization recommendations since 2010. Regional organizations and governments should strengthen policies and interventions to measure and reduce sodium consumption in LAC.

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A systematic review of population-based studies on lipid profiles in Latin America and the Caribbean

eLife ◽

10.7554/elife.57980 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 9 ◽

Author(s):

Rodrigo M Carrillo-Larco ◽

C Joel Benites-Moya ◽

Cecilia Anza-Ramirez ◽

Leonardo Albitres-Flores ◽

Diana Sánchez-Velazco ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Systematic Review ◽

Latin America ◽

Total Cholesterol ◽

Meta Analysis ◽

Hdl Cholesterol ◽

Population Based ◽

Pooled Prevalence ◽

Low Hdl ◽

Health Studies ◽

The Caribbean

We aimed to study time trends and levels of mean total cholesterol and lipid fractions, and dyslipidaemias prevalence in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC). Systematic-review and meta-analysis of population-based studies in which lipid (total cholesterol [TC; 86 studies; 168,553 people], HDL-Cholesterol [HDL-C; 84 studies; 121,282 people], LDL-Cholesterol [LDL-C; 61 studies; 86,854 people], and triglycerides [TG; 84 studies; 121,009 people]) levels and prevalences were laboratory-based. We used Scopus, LILACS, Embase, Medline and Global Health; studies were from 1964 to 2016. Pooled means and prevalences were estimated for lipid biomarkers from ≥2005. The pooled means (mg/dl) were 193 for TC, 120 for LDL-C, 47 for HDL-C, and 139 for TG; no strong trends. The pooled prevalence estimates were 21% for high TC, 20% for high LDL-C, 48% for low HDL-C, and 21% for high TG; no strong trends. These results may help strengthen programs for dyslipidaemias prevention/management in LAC.

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Prevalence and incidence of epilepsy in Latin America and the Caribbean: A systematic review and meta‐analysis of population‐based studies

Epilepsia ◽

10.1111/epi.16850 ◽

2021 ◽

Author(s):

Carlos Alva‐Díaz ◽

Alba Navarro‐Flores ◽

Oscar Rivera‐Torrejon ◽

Andrely Huerta‐Rosario ◽

Roberto A. Molina ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Systematic Review ◽

Latin America ◽

Meta Analysis ◽

Population Based ◽

The Caribbean

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Salt intake and blood pressure in Iranian children and adolescents: a population-based study

BMC Cardiovascular Disorders ◽

10.1186/s12872-021-01876-z ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 21 (1) ◽

Author(s):

Mohammad Hassan Emamian ◽

Hossein Ebrahimi ◽

Hassan Hashemi ◽

Akbar Fotouhi

Keyword(s):

Blood Pressure ◽

Rural Areas ◽

Urban Areas ◽

Salt Intake ◽

Daily Intake ◽

Population Based ◽

World Health ◽

Second Phase ◽

Salt Consumption ◽

The Mean

Abstract Background Previous studies have reported a high prevalence of hypertension in Iranian students, especially in rural areas. The aim of this study was to investigate the daily intake of salt in students and its association with high blood pressure. Methods A random sub-sample was selected from the participants of the second phase of Shahroud schoolchildren eye cohort study and then a random urine sample was tested for sodium, potassium and creatinine. Urine electrolyte esexcretion and daily salt intake were calculated by Tanaka et al.’s formula. Results Among 1455 participants (including 230 participants from rural area and 472 girls), the mean age was 12.9 ± 1.7 year and the mean daily salt intake was 9.7 ± 2.6 g (95% CI 9.5–9.8). The mean salt consumption in rural areas [10.8 (95% CI 10.4–11.2)] was higher than urban areas [9.4 (95% CI 9.3–9.6)], in people with hypertension [10.8 (95% CI 10.3–11.3)] was more than people with normal blood pressure [9.4 (95% CI 9.3–9.6)], and in boys [9.8 (95% CI 9.7–10.0)] was more than girls [9.3 (95% CI 9.1–9.6)]. Higher age, BMI z-score, male sex and rural life, were associated with increased daily salt intake. Increased salt intake was associated with increased systolic and diastolic blood pressure. Conclusion Daily salt intake in Iranian adolescents was about 2 times the recommended amount of the World Health Organization, was higher in rural areas and was associated with blood pressure. Reducing salt intake should be considered as an important intervention, especially in rural areas.

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Epidemiology of acute otitis media in children of Latin America and the Caribbean: A systematic review and meta-analysis

International Journal of Pediatric Otorhinolaryngology ◽

10.1016/j.ijporl.2011.05.014 ◽

2011 ◽

Vol 75 (9) ◽

pp. 1062-1070 ◽

Cited By ~ 32

Author(s):

Ariel Bardach ◽

Agustín Ciapponi ◽

Sebastian Garcia-Marti ◽

Demian Glujovsky ◽

Agustina Mazzoni ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Systematic Review ◽

Latin America ◽

Otitis Media ◽

Meta Analysis ◽

Acute Otitis Media ◽

The Caribbean

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The risk of mortality among people with type 2 diabetes in Latin America: A systematic review and meta-analysis of population-based cohort studies

Diabetes/Metabolism Research and Reviews ◽

10.1002/dmrr.3139 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 35 (4) ◽

pp. e3139 ◽

Cited By ~ 10

Author(s):

Rodrigo M. Carrillo-Larco ◽

Noël C. Barengo ◽

Leonardo Albitres-Flores ◽

Antonio Bernabe-Ortiz

Keyword(s):

Systematic Review ◽

Type 2 Diabetes ◽

Latin America ◽

Cohort Studies ◽

Meta Analysis ◽

Population Based ◽

Risk Of Mortality

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Salt and potassium intake among adult Ghanaians: WHO-SAGE Ghana Wave 3

BMC Nutrition ◽

10.1186/s40795-020-00379-y ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 6 (1) ◽

Author(s):

Elias K. Menyanu ◽

Barbara Corso ◽

Nadia Minicuci ◽

Ilaria Rocco ◽

Joanna Russell ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Salt Intake ◽

Population Based ◽

Dietary Sodium ◽

World Health ◽

Adult Health ◽

Salt Reduction ◽

Hypertension Prevalence ◽

Salt Consumption ◽

Consumption Data

Abstract Though Ghana has high hypertension prevalence, the country lacks current national salt consumption data required to build and enhance advocacy for salt reduction. We explored the characteristics of a randomly selected sub sample that had valid urine collection, along with matched survey, anthropometric and BP data (n = 839, mean age = 60y), from the World Health Organization’s Study on global AGEing and adult health (WHO-SAGE), Ghana Wave 3, n = 3053). We also investigated the relationship between salt intake and blood pressure (BP) among the cohort. BP was measured in triplicate and 24 h urine was collected for the determination of urinary sodium (Na), potassium (K), creatinine (Cr) and iodine levels. Hypertension prevalence was 44.3%. Median salt intake was 8.3 g/day, higher in women compared to men (8.6, interquartile range (IQR) 7.5 g/day vs 7.5, IQR 7.4 g/day, p < 0.01), younger participants (18–49 y) compared to older ones (50+ y) (9.7, IQR 7.9 g/day vs 8.1, IQR 7.1 g/day, p < 0.01) and those with higher Body Mass Index (BMI) (> 30 kg/m2) compared to a healthy BMI (18.5–24.9 kg/m2) (10.04, IQR 5.1 g/day vs 6.2, IQR 5.6 g/day, p < 0.01). More than three quarters (77%, n = 647) of participants had salt intakes above the WHO maximum recommendation of 5 g/d, and nearly two thirds (65%, n = 548) had daily K intakes below the recommended level of 90 mmol. Dietary sodium to potassium (Na: K) ratios above 2 mmol/mmol were positively associated with increasing BP with age. Population-based interventions to reduce salt intake and increase K consumption are needed.

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Prevalence of Helicobacter pylori infection in Latin America and the Caribbean populations: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Cancer Epidemiology ◽

10.1016/j.canep.2019.04.003 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 60 ◽

pp. 141-148 ◽

Cited By ~ 7

Author(s):

Maria Paula Curado ◽

Max Moura de Oliveira ◽

Marcela de Araújo Fagundes

Keyword(s):

Systematic Review ◽

Helicobacter Pylori ◽

Latin America ◽

Meta Analysis ◽

Helicobacter Pylori Infection ◽

The Caribbean ◽

Caribbean Populations

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Type-Specific HPV Prevalence in Cervical Cancer and High-Grade Lesions in Latin America and the Caribbean: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

PLoS ONE ◽

10.1371/journal.pone.0025493 ◽

2011 ◽

Vol 6 (10) ◽

pp. e25493 ◽

Cited By ~ 59

Author(s):

Agustín Ciapponi ◽

Ariel Bardach ◽

Demián Glujovsky ◽

Luz Gibbons ◽

María Alejandra Picconi

Keyword(s):

Systematic Review ◽

Cervical Cancer ◽

Latin America ◽

Meta Analysis ◽

High Grade ◽

Hpv Prevalence ◽

The Caribbean

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Mean Dietary Salt Intake in Vanuatu: A Population Survey of 755 Participants on Efate Island

Nutrients ◽

10.3390/nu11040916 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 11 (4) ◽

pp. 916

Author(s):

Katherine Paterson ◽

Nerida Hinge ◽

Emalie Sparks ◽

Kathy Trieu ◽

Joseph Alvin Santos ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Salt Intake ◽

Urine Samples ◽

World Health ◽

Dietary Salt ◽

Cross Sectional Survey ◽

Cross Sectional ◽

Middle Income ◽

Dietary Salt Intake ◽

Spot Urine ◽

Salt Consumption

Non-communicable diseases are responsible for 63% of global deaths, with a higher burden in low- and middle-income countries. Hypertension is the leading cause of cardiovascular-disease-related deaths worldwide, and approximately 1.7 million deaths are directly attributable to excess salt intake annually. There has been little research conducted on the level of salt consumption amongst the population of Vanuatu. Based on data from other Pacific Island countries and knowledge of changing regional diets, it was predicted that salt intake would exceed the World Health Organization’s (WHO) recommended maximum of 5 g per day. The current study aimed to provide Vanuatu with a preliminary baseline assessment of population salt intake on Efate Island. A cross-sectional survey collected demographic, clinical, and urine data from participants aged 18 to 69 years in rural and urban communities on Efate Island in October 2016 and February 2017. Mean salt intake was determined to be 7.2 (SD 2.3) g/day from spot urine samples, and 5.9 (SD 3.6) g/day from 24-h urine samples, both of which exceed the WHO recommended maximum. Based on the spot urine samples, males had significantly higher salt intake than females (7.8 g compared to 6.5 g; p < 0.001) and almost 85% of the population consumed more than the WHO recommended maximum daily amount. A coordinated government strategy is recommended to reduce salt consumption, including fiscal policies, engagement with the food industry, and education and awareness-raising to promote behavior change.

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