scholarly journals Dairy Sheep Played a Minor Role in the 2005–2010 Human Q Fever Outbreak in The Netherlands Compared to Dairy Goats

Pathogens ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 10 (12) ◽  
pp. 1579
Author(s):  
Piet Vellema ◽  
Inge Santman-Berends ◽  
Frederika Dijkstra ◽  
Erik van Engelen ◽  
Marian Aalberts ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
The Netherlands ◽  
Q Fever ◽  
Small Ruminants ◽  
Causal Role ◽  
Dairy Goat ◽  
Minor Role ◽  
Dairy Sheep ◽  
Dairy Goats ◽  
Animal Reservoir ◽  
A Minor

Q fever is an almost ubiquitous zoonosis caused by Coxiella burnetii. This organism infects several animal species, as well as humans, and domestic ruminants like cattle, sheep and goats are an important animal reservoir of C. burnetii. In 2007, a sudden rise in notified human Q fever cases occurred in The Netherlands, and by the end of 2009, more than 3500 human Q fever patients had been notified. Dairy sheep and dairy goats were suspected to play a causal role in this human Q fever outbreak, and several measures were taken, aiming at a reduction of C. burnetii shedding by infected small ruminants, in order to reduce environmental contamination and thus human exposure. One of the first measures was compulsory notification of more than five percent abortion within thirty days for dairy sheep and dairy goat farms, starting 12 June 2008. After notification, an official farm inspection took place, and laboratory investigations were performed aiming at ruling out or demonstrating a causal role of C. burnetii. These measures were effective, and the number of human Q fever cases decreased; levels are currently the same as they were prior to 2007. The effect of these measures was monitored using a bulk tank milk (BTM) PCR and an antibody ELISA. The percentage PCR positive dairy herds and flocks decreased over time, and dairy sheep flocks tested PCR positive significantly less often and became PCR negative earlier compared to dairy goat herds. Although there was no difference in the percentage of dairy goat and dairy sheep farms with a C. burnetii abortion outbreak, the total number of shedding dairy sheep was much lower than the number of shedding dairy goats. Combined with the fact that Q fever patients lived mainly in the proximity of infected dairy goat farms and that no Q fever patients could be linked directly to dairy sheep farms, although this may have happened in individual cases, we conclude that dairy sheep did not play a major role in the Dutch Q fever outbreak. BTM monitoring using both a PCR and an ELISA is essential to determine a potential C. burnetii risk, not only for The Netherlands but for other countries with small ruminant dairy industries.

The Q fever epidemic in The Netherlands: history, onset, response and reflection

2010 ◽  
Vol 139 (1) ◽  
pp. 1-12 ◽  
Author(s):  
H. I. J. ROEST ◽  
J. J. H. C. TILBURG ◽  
W. VAN DER HOEK ◽  
P. VELLEMA ◽  
F. G. VAN ZIJDERVELD ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
The Netherlands ◽  
Q Fever ◽  
Small Ruminants ◽  
Historical Background ◽  
Dairy Goat ◽  
Surveillance Systems ◽  
Dairy Sheep ◽  
Dairy Goats ◽  
Monitoring And Surveillance ◽  
Onset Response

SUMMARYThe 2007–2009 human Q fever epidemic in The Netherlands attracted attention due to its magnitude and duration. The current epidemic and the historical background of Q fever in The Netherlands are reviewed according to national and international publications. Seroprevalence studies suggest that Q fever was endemic in The Netherlands several decades before the disease was diagnosed in dairy goats and dairy sheep. This was in 2005 and the increase in humans started in 2007. Q fever abortions were registered on 30 dairy goat and dairy sheep farms between 2005 and 2009. A total of 3523 human cases were notified between 2007 and 2009. Proximity to aborting small ruminants and high numbers of susceptible humans are probably the main causes of the human Q fever outbreak in The Netherlands. In general good monitoring and surveillance systems are necessary to assess the real magnitude of Q fever.

scholarly journals Sustained intensive transmission of Q fever in the south of the Netherlands, 2009

2009 ◽  
Vol 14 (19) ◽  
Author(s):  
B Schimmer ◽  
F Dijkstra ◽  
P Vellema ◽  
P M Schneeberger ◽  
V Hackert ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
The Netherlands ◽  
Sharp Increase ◽  
Q Fever ◽  
Small Ruminants ◽  
High Density ◽  
Control Measures ◽  
Dairy Goat ◽  
Multidisciplinary Research ◽  
Additional Control ◽  
Mandatory Vaccination

The Netherlands is again facing a sharp increase in Q fever notifications, after the unprecedented outbreaks of 2007 and 2008. The most affected province of Noord Brabant has a high density of large dairy goat farms, and farms with abortion waves have been incriminated. Mandatory vaccination of small ruminants has started and should have an effect in 2010. A large multidisciplinary research portfolio is expected to generate better knowledge about transmission and additional control measures.

scholarly journals Identification of the Genome Segments of Bluetongue Virus Type 26/Type 1 Reassortants Influencing Horizontal Transmission in a Mouse Model

Viruses ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 13 (11) ◽  
pp. 2208
Author(s):  
Houssam Attoui ◽  
Baptiste Monsion ◽  
Bernard Klonjkowski ◽  
Stéphan Zientara ◽  
Peter P. C. Mertens ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Mouse Model ◽  
Bluetongue Virus ◽  
Reverse Genetics ◽  
Horizontal Transmission ◽  
Clinical Signs ◽  
Small Ruminants ◽  
Minor Role ◽  
Individual Genome ◽  
A Minor ◽  
Reassortant Viruses

Bluetongue virus serotypes 1 to 24 are transmitted primarily by infected Culicoides midges, in which they also replicate. However, “atypical” BTV serotypes (BTV-25, -26, -27 and -28) have recently been identified that do not infect and replicate in adult Culicoides, or a Culicoides derived cell line (KC cells). These atypical viruses are transmitted horizontally by direct contact between infected and susceptible hosts (primarily small ruminants) causing only mild clinical signs, although the exact transmission mechanisms involved have yet to be determined. We used reverse genetics to generate a strain of BTV-1 (BTV-1 RGC7) which is less virulent, infecting IFNAR(−/−) mice without killing them. Reassortant viruses were also engineered, using the BTV-1 RGC7 genetic backbone, containing individual genome segments derived from BTV-26. These reassortant viruses were used to explore the genetic control of horizontal transmission (HT) in the IFNAR(−/−) mouse model. Previous studies showed that genome segments 1, 2 and 3 restrict infection of Culicoides cells, along with a minor role for segment 7. The current study demonstrates that genome segments 2, 5 and 10 of BTV-26 (coding for proteins VP2, NS1 and NS3/NS3a/NS5, respectively) are individually sufficient to promote HT.

Visits on ‘lamb-viewing days’ at a sheep farm open to the public was a risk factor for Q fever in 2009

2011 ◽  
Vol 140 (5) ◽  
pp. 858-864 ◽  
Author(s):  
J. WHELAN ◽  
B. SCHIMMER ◽  
A. DE BRUIN ◽  
M. ROBERT-DU RY VAN BEEST HOLLE ◽  
W. VAN DER HOEK ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Q Fever ◽  
Preliminary Investigation ◽  
Control Measures ◽  
Dairy Goat ◽  
Multivariable Logistic Regression Analysis ◽  
Dairy Sheep ◽  
The Public ◽  
Sheep Farm ◽  
Acute Q Fever ◽  
And Control

SUMMARYBetween February and May 2009, 347 laboratory-confirmed cases of acute Q fever were reported in a southern municipal health service region in The Netherlands. Commercial dairy-goat farms were implicated and control measures were initially targeted there. A preliminary investigation also implicated a non-dairy sheep farm, open to the public on ‘lamb-viewing days’. This study tested the association between visiting the non-dairy sheep farm and developing Q fever in residents of the region between February and May 2009. A case-control study of 146 cases and 431 address-matched controls was conducted. Multivariable logistic regression analysis confirmed the association between visiting to the sheep farm and Q fever disease (matched odds ratio 43, 95% confidence interval 9–200). Other risk factors were being a smoker, having a past medical history and being aged >40 years. Vaccination of sheep and goats on farms open to the public should help to reduce the number of future human cases.

scholarly journals Single-Nucleotide-Polymorphism Genotyping ofCoxiella burnetiiduring a Q Fever Outbreak in The Netherlands

2011 ◽  
Vol 77 (6) ◽  
pp. 2051-2057 ◽  
Author(s):  
Cornelis J. J. Huijsmans ◽  
Jeroen J. A. Schellekens ◽  
Peter C. Wever ◽  
Rudolf Toman ◽  
Paul H. M. Savelkoul ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Single Nucleotide Polymorphism ◽  
The Netherlands ◽  
Q Fever ◽  
Snp Genotyping ◽  
Cow Milk ◽  
Clinical Samples ◽  
Nucleotide Polymorphism ◽  
Animal Reservoir ◽  
Single Nucleotide ◽  
Outbreak Area

ABSTRACTCoxiella burnetiiis the etiological agent of Q fever. Currently, the Netherlands is facing the largest Q fever epidemic ever, with almost 4,000 notified human cases. Although the presence of a hypervirulent strain is hypothesized, epidemiological evidence, such as the animal reservoir(s) and genotype of theC. burnetiistrain(s) involved, is still lacking. We developed a single-nucleotide-polymorphism (SNP) genotyping assay directly applicable to clinical samples. Ten discriminatory SNPs were carefully selected and detected by real-time PCR. SNP genotyping appeared to be highly suitable for discrimination ofC. burnetiistrains and easy to perform with clinical samples. With this new method, we show that the Dutch outbreak is caused by at least 5 differentC. burnetiigenotypes. SNP typing of 14 human samples from the outbreak revealed the presence of 3 dissimilar genotypes. Two genotypes were also present in livestock at 9 farms in the outbreak area. SNP analyses of bulk milk from 5 other farms, commercial cow milk, and cow colostrum revealed 2 additional genotypes that were not detected in humans. SNP genotyping data from clinical samples clearly demonstrate that at least 5 differentC. burnetiigenotypes are involved in the Dutch outbreak.

scholarly journals Large ongoing Q fever outbreak in the south of The Netherlands, 2008

2008 ◽  
Vol 13 (31) ◽  
Author(s):  
B Schimmer ◽  
G Morroy ◽  
F Dijkstra ◽  
P M Schneeberger ◽  
G Weers-Pothoff ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
The Netherlands ◽  
Clinical Symptoms ◽  
Q Fever ◽  
Small Ruminants ◽  
The South ◽  
Chronic Infections ◽  
Positive Serology ◽  
Increased Risk ◽  
Wide Range ◽  
Adverse Pregnancy

Q fever is a worldwide zoonosis caused by the bacterium Coxiella burnetii which is common in a wide range of wild and domestic animals. Cattle and small ruminants, in particular sheep and goats, have been associated with large human outbreaks. Humans become infected primarily by inhaling aerosols that are contaminated by C. burnetii. Most infections remain asymptomatic but in about 40% lead to a febrile disease, pneumonia and/or hepatitis. Chronic infections, mainly endocarditis, are observed in 3 to 5% of cases, with an increased risk for pregnant women and persons with heart valve disorders or impaired immunity. Q fever in pregnancy, whether symptomatic or asymptomatic, may also result in adverse pregnancy outcomes [1]. Q fever in humans is a notifiable disease in The Netherlands. The notification criteria for a confirmed case of acute Q fever are clinical symptoms consistent with Q fever and a positive serology defined by immunofluoresence assay (IFA) test or a C. burnetii complement fixation test [2]. Also clinical patients diagnosed by PCR are considered as confirmed cases. Between 1997 and 2006, Q fever was notified rarely with an average of 11 (range 5-16) cases annually [3]. In 2007, we reported in this journal the first community outbreak of Q fever in the south of The Netherlands [4].

scholarly journals Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis ELISA Responses in Milk Samples from Vaccinated and Nonvaccinated Dairy Goat Herds in The Netherlands

2019 ◽  
Vol 6 (2) ◽  
pp. 58 ◽  
Author(s):  
Saskia Luttikholt ◽  
Karianne Lievaart-Peterson ◽  
Maaike Gonggrijp ◽  
Marian Aalberts ◽  
Gerdien van Schaik ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
The Netherlands ◽  
Mycobacterium Avium ◽  
Relative Sensitivity ◽  
Herd Size ◽  
Mycobacterium Avium Subsp ◽  
Dairy Goat ◽  
Dairy Goats ◽  
Milk Samples ◽  
Goat Population ◽  
Mycobacterium Avium Subsp Paratuberculosis

The aims of our study were to calculate the most appropriate cut-off value for milk samples in a serum-validated Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP) ELISA and to analyze MAP ELISA responses in milk samples from vaccinated and nonvaccinated dairy goats in the Netherlands. Analyzed herds were representative for location and herd size of dairy goat herds in the Netherlands. A significantly higher proportion of the analyzed 49 herds were organic as compared with the total Dutch dairy goat population. First, the MAP ELISA was optimized using 992 paired serum and milk samples. At a cut-off of 25 S/P%, the relative sensitivity (Se) was 58.4% (n = 992, 95% CI: 48.8%−67.6%) and relative specificity (Sp) was 98.5% (n = 992, 95% CI: 97.5%−99.2%), as compared to serum ELISA results. The percentage of positively tested herds was 78.2% (n = 49, 95% CI: 63.4%−88.1%). The percentage of positive milk samples per herd (n = 22) was on average 4.6% (median, min, and max of 4.7%, 0.0%, and 10.7%, respectively). Average age of ELISA-positive (3.2 years) and -negative goats (3.2 years) was not different. Significantly more vaccinated goats tested positive (6.7%) as compared with nonvaccinated goats (1.1%). This study shows that a high number of vaccinated and nonvaccinated commercial dairy goat herds in the Netherlands have MAP-ELISA-positive goats.

scholarly journals The 2007–2010 Q fever epidemic in the Netherlands: characteristics of notified acute Q fever patients and the association with dairy goat farming

2012 ◽  
Vol 64 (1) ◽  
pp. 3-12 ◽  
Author(s):  
Frederika Dijkstra ◽  
Wim van der Hoek ◽  
Nancy Wijers ◽  
Barbara Schimmer ◽  
Ariene Rietveld ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
The Netherlands ◽  
Q Fever ◽  
Dairy Goat ◽  
Acute Q Fever ◽  
Goat Farming

Outbreak of subclinical mastitis in a flock of dairy goats associated with atypicalStaphylococcus haemolyticus

2008 ◽  
Vol 76 (1) ◽  
pp. 1-5 ◽  
Author(s):  
Gabriel Leitner ◽  
Shlom Sela ◽  
Orly Hammer-Muntz ◽  
Doni Zivotofsky ◽  
Limor Weisblit ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Dairy Cows ◽  
Small Ruminants ◽  
Subclinical Mastitis ◽  
Species Level ◽  
Dairy Goat ◽  
Dairy Goats ◽  
Coagulase Negative Staphylococci ◽  
Somatic Cell Counts ◽  
Cell Counts ◽  
Rdna Sequencing

Staphylococcus haemolyticusis a pathogen frequently isolated from dairy cows and small ruminants. However, it always appears in only a few animals and not as a major pathogen. Recently, in a dairy goat herd of approximately 250 milking animals, 25·6% (46/180 goats) had milk cultures with atypical highly mucoid colonies accompanied by elevated somatic cell counts. The isolates were identified asStaph. haemolyticus. The present study describes the steps used in an attempt to identify the bacterium and to compare it with other coagulase-negative staphylococci (CNS) includingStaph. haemolyticus. Species identification performed with the API STAPH-IDENT 32 kit showed >99·4% identity confirmed by 16S rDNA sequencing tests. Microscopically the atypicalStaph. haemolyticusstrains showed unique cuboidal tetrad clusters reminiscent of those of the genusSarcina. The outbreak caused by an atypical CNS underlines the need for accurate biochemical and genetic methods for ultimate identification of CNS to the species level.

scholarly journals In search of hidden Q-fever outbreaks: linking syndromic hospital clusters to infected goat farms

2010 ◽  
Vol 139 (1) ◽  
pp. 19-26 ◽  
Author(s):  
C. C. VAN DEN WIJNGAARD ◽  
F. DIJKSTRA ◽  
W. VAN PELT ◽  
L. VAN ASTEN ◽  
M. KRETZSCHMAR ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
The Netherlands ◽  
Real Time ◽  
Syndromic Surveillance ◽  
Q Fever ◽  
Respiratory Infections ◽  
The Other ◽  
Scan Statistics ◽  
Dairy Goat ◽  
Infected Goat ◽  
Time Scan

SUMMARYLarge Q-fever outbreaks were reported in The Netherlands from May 2007 to 2009, with dairy-goat farms as the putative source. Since Q-fever outbreaks at such farms were first reported in 2005, we explored whether there was evidence of human outbreaks before May 2007. Space–time scan statistics were used to look for clusters of lower-respiratory infections (LRIs), hepatitis, and/or endocarditis in hospitalizations, 2005–2007. We assessed whether these were plausibly caused by Q fever, using patients' age, discharge diagnoses, indications for other causes, and overlap with reported Q fever in goats/humans. For seven detected LRI clusters and one hepatitis cluster, we considered Q fever a plausible cause. One of these clusters reflected the recognized May 2007 outbreak. Real-time syndromic surveillance would have detected four of the other clusters in 2007, one in 2006 and two in 2005, which might have resulted in detection of Q-fever outbreaks up to 2 years earlier.

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