scholarly journals Does Green Really Mean Go? Increasing the Fraction of Green Photons Promotes Growth of Tomato but Not Lettuce or Cucumber

Plants ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 10 (4) ◽  
pp. 637
Author(s):  
Paul Kusuma ◽  
Boston Swan ◽  
Bruce Bugbee
Keyword(s):  
Leaf Area ◽  
Stem Elongation ◽  
Wavelength Region ◽  
Sole Source ◽  
Dry Mass ◽  
Leaf Expansion ◽  
Photon Flux ◽  
Shade Avoidance ◽  
Crop Species ◽  
Blue Region

The photon flux in the green wavelength region is relatively enriched in shade and the photon flux in the blue region is selectively filtered. In sole source lighting environments, increasing the fraction of blue typically decreases stem elongation and leaf expansion, and smaller leaves reduce photon capture and yield. Photons in the green region reverse these blue reductions through the photoreceptor cryptochrome in Arabidopsis thaliana, but studies in other species have not consistently shown the benefits of photons in the green region on leaf expansion and growth. Spectral effects can interact with total photon flux. Here, we report the effect of the fraction of photons in the blue (10 to 30%) and green (0 to 50%) regions at photosynthetic photon flux densities of 200 and 500 µmol m−2 s−1 in lettuce, cucumber and tomato. As expected, increasing the fraction of photons in the blue region consistently decreased leaf area and dry mass. By contrast, large changes in the fraction of photons in the green region had minimal effects on leaf area and dry mass in lettuce and cucumber. Photons in the green region were more potent at a lower fraction of photons in the blue region. Photons in the green region increased stem and petiole length in cucumber and tomato, which is a classic shade avoidance response. These results suggest that high-light crop species might respond to the fraction of photons in the green region with either shade tolerance (leaf expansion) or shade avoidance (stem elongation).

scholarly journals Blue Radiation Interacts with Green Radiation to Influence Growth and Predominantly Controls Quality Attributes of Lettuce

2020 ◽  
Vol 145 (2) ◽  
pp. 75-87 ◽  
Author(s):  
Qingwu Meng ◽  
Jennifer Boldt ◽  
Erik S. Runkle
Keyword(s):  
Avoidance Response ◽  
Flux Density ◽  
Light Emitting Diode ◽  
Sole Source ◽  
Dry Mass ◽  
Photosynthetic Photon Flux Density ◽  
Photon Flux ◽  
Photon Flux Density ◽  
Shade Avoidance ◽  
White Leds

Adding green [G (500–600 nm)] radiation to blue [B (400–500 nm)] and red [R (600–700 nm)] radiation creates white radiation and improves crop inspection at indoor farms. Although G radiation can drive photosynthesis and elicit the shade-avoidance response, its effects on plant growth and morphology have been inconsistent. We postulated G radiation would counter the suppression of crop growth and promotion of secondary metabolism by B radiation depending on the B photon flux density (PFD). Lettuce (Lactuca sativa ‘Rouxai’) was grown in a growth room under nine sole-source light-emitting diode (LED) treatments with a 20-hour photoperiod or in a greenhouse. At the same photosynthetic photon flux density [PPFD (400–700 nm)] of 180 μmol·m−2·s−1, plants were grown under warm-white LEDs or increasing B PFDs at 0, 20, 60, and 100 μmol·m−2·s−1 with or without substituting the remaining R radiation with 60 μmol·m−2·s−1 of G radiation. Biomass and leaf expansion were negatively correlated with the B PFD with or without G radiation. For example, increasing the B PFD decreased fresh and dry mass by up to 63% and 54%, respectively. The inclusion of G radiation did not affect shoot dry mass at 0 or 20 μmol·m−2·s−1 of B radiation, but it decreased it at 60 or 100 μmol·m−2·s−1 of B radiation. Results suggest that the shade-avoidance response is strongly elicited by low B radiation and repressed by high B radiation, rendering G radiation ineffective at controlling morphology. Moreover, substituting R radiation with G radiation likely reduced the quantum yield. Otherwise, G radiation barely influenced morphology, foliage coloration, essential nutrients, or sensory attributes regardless of the B PFD. Increasing the B PFD increased red foliage coloration and the concentrations of several macronutrients (e.g., nitrogen and magnesium) and micronutrients (e.g., zinc and copper). Consumers preferred plants grown under sole-source lighting over those grown in the greenhouse, which were more bitter and less acceptable, flavorful, and sweet. We concluded that lettuce phenotypes are primarily controlled by B radiation and that G radiation maintains or suppresses lettuce growth depending on the B PFD.

scholarly journals Longer Photoperiods with the Same Daily Light Integral Improve Growth of Rudbeckia Seedlings in a Greenhouse

HortScience ◽  
2020 ◽  
Vol 55 (10) ◽  
pp. 1676-1682 ◽  
Author(s):  
Claudia Elkins ◽  
Marc W. van Iersel
Keyword(s):  
Leaf Area ◽  
Specific Leaf Area ◽  
Growth Parameters ◽  
Light Emitting Diode ◽  
Dry Mass ◽  
Photon Flux ◽  
Shade Avoidance ◽  
Daily Light Integral ◽  
Content Index ◽  
Light Integral

Supplemental light can increase growth and accelerate production of greenhouse crops, but it can be expensive if not provided in a way that promotes efficient use of the light. Dimmable light-emitting diode (LED) fixtures have the potential to reduce lighting costs because the output can be precisely controlled to meet crop needs. Because light is used more efficiently to drive photosynthesis at lower photosynthetic photon flux densities (PPFDs), we hypothesized that providing Rudbeckia fulgida var. sullivantii ‘Goldsturm’ seedlings with the same daily light integral (DLI), spread out over a longer photoperiod and at lower PPFDs, should improve growth. A DLI of 12 mol·m−2·d−1 was provided in a greenhouse over 12, 15, 18, or 21-hour photoperiods from a combination of sunlight and supplemental light from LEDs, using adaptive lighting control. Plants grown without supplemental light had an ≈12-hour photoperiod and received an average DLI of 5 mol·m−2·d−1, ≈58% less light than the four lighting treatments. Lengthening the photoperiod from 12 to 21 hours increased shoot dry mass (30%), root dry mass (24%), plant height (14%), leaf area (16%), and chlorophyll content index (48%), and decreased specific leaf area (26%). There was no significant effect of photoperiod on root mass fraction or compactness. Growth parameters of plants without supplemental light were 26% to 90% smaller compared with those in the 12-hour photoperiod treatment. Treatment effects on canopy size, seen as early as 2 weeks into the study, were correlated with final shoot dry mass. Longer photoperiods did not induce a shade-avoidance response, based on specific leaf area and compactness data. The 24% increase in root dry mass for the plants in the 21-hour photoperiod suggests that cropping cycles can be shortened by 1 to 2 weeks compared with the 12-hour photoperiod. This could result in more crop turns per year and increased profits. In addition, fewer lights would be needed for adequate growth, reducing the capital cost of the lighting system.

scholarly journals Responses of Broccoli Seedlings to Light Quality during Low-temperature Storage in Vitro: I. Morphology and Survival

HortScience ◽  
1998 ◽  
Vol 33 (7) ◽  
pp. 1253-1257 ◽  
Author(s):  
Sandra B. Wilson ◽  
Keiko Iwabuchi ◽  
Nihal C. Rajapakse ◽  
Roy E. Young
Keyword(s):  
Leaf Area ◽  
Chlorophyll Content ◽  
Blue Light ◽  
Stem Elongation ◽  
Dry Mass ◽  
Compensation Point ◽  
Photon Flux ◽  
Light Illumination ◽  
Light Compensation Point

Broccoli (Brassica oleracea L. Botrytis group `Green Duke') seeds were cultured in vitro photoautotrophically (without sugar in the medium) or photomixotrophically (with sugar in the medium) for 3 weeks at 23 °C and 150 μmol·m-2·s-1 photosynthetic photon flux (PPF). Vessels were then stored at 5 °C under 1.6, 4.1, or 8.6 μmol·m-2·s-1 of white (400-800 nm), red (600-700 nm), or blue (400-500 nm) light. Concentrations of CO2 inside the vessels were monitored until equilibrium was reached. Light compensation point was reached at 3.5 μmol·m-2·s-1 for photoautotrophic seedlings and at 6.5 μmol·m-2·s-1 for photomixotrophic seedlings. Therefore, in the long-term storage experiment, seedlings were stored for 4, 8, or 12 weeks at 5 °C in darkness or under 5 μmol·m-2·s-1 (average light compensation point) of white, red, or blue light. Illumination during storage was necessary to maintain dry mass, leaf area, and regrowth potentials of in vitro seedlings. All seedlings stored in darkness were of poor quality and died when transferred to the greenhouse. Red light during storage increased seedling dry mass and chlorophyll content and improved overall appearance, whereas blue light decreased chlorophyll content and increased stem elongation. The addition of 2% sucrose to media increased dry mass and leaf area and maintained overall seedling quality during illuminated storage. However, plantlets stored for more than 4 weeks did not survive poststorage greenhouse conditions, regardless of light treatment.

scholarly journals Improving the Predictive Value of Phytochrome Photoequilibrium: Consideration of Spectral Distortion Within a Leaf

2021 ◽  
Vol 12 ◽  
Author(s):  
Paul Kusuma ◽  
Bruce Bugbee
Keyword(s):  
Predictive Value ◽  
Stem Elongation ◽  
Stem Length ◽  
Photon Flux ◽  
Photon Flux Density ◽  
Shade Avoidance ◽  
Spectral Distortion ◽  
Weighting Factors ◽  
Distortion Functions ◽  
Morphological Responses

The ratio of active phytochrome (Pfr) to total phytochrome (Pr + Pfr), called phytochrome photo-equilibrium (PPE; also called phytochrome photostationary state, PSS) has been used to explain shade avoidance responses in both natural and controlled environments. PPE is commonly estimated using measurements of the spectral photon distribution (SPD) above the canopy and photoconversion coefficients. This approach has effectively predicted morphological responses when only red and far-red (FR) photon fluxes have varied, but controlled environment research often utilizes unique ratios of wavelengths so a more rigorous evaluation of the predictive ability of PPE on morphology is warranted. Estimations of PPE have rarely incorporated the optical effects of spectral distortion within a leaf caused by pigment absorbance and photon scattering. We studied stem elongation rate in the model plant cucumber under diverse spectral backgrounds over a range of one to 45% FR (total photon flux density, 400–750 nm, of 400 μmol m–2 s–1) and found that PPE was not predictive when blue and green varied. Preferential absorption of red and blue photons by chlorophyll results in an SPD that is relatively enriched in green and FR at the phytochrome molecule within a cell. This can be described by spectral distortion functions for specific layers of a leaf. Multiplying the photoconversion coefficients by these distortion functions yields photoconversion weighting factors that predict phytochrome conversion at the site of photon perception within leaf tissue. Incorporating spectral distortion improved the predictive value of PPE when phytochrome was assumed to be homogeneously distributed within the whole leaf. In a supporting study, the herbicide norflurazon was used to remove chlorophyll in seedlings. Using distortion functions unique to either green or white cotyledons, we came to the same conclusions as with whole plants in the longer-term study. Leaves of most species have similar spectral absorbance so this approach for predicting PPE should be broadly applicable. We provide a table of the photoconversion weighting factors. Our analysis indicates that the simple, intuitive ratio of FR (700–750 nm) to total photon flux (far-red fraction) is also a reliable predictor of morphological responses like stem length.

scholarly journals Phytochrome contributes to blue-light-mediated stem elongation and associated shade-avoidance response in mature Arabidopsis plants

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Yun Kong ◽  
Youbin Zheng
Keyword(s):  
Avoidance Response ◽  
Blue Light ◽  
Stem Elongation ◽  
Growth Trait ◽  
Stem Length ◽  
Photon Flux ◽  
Photon Flux Density ◽  
Shade Avoidance ◽  
Wild Type ◽  
Avoidance Responses

AbstractOur recent studies on ornamental plants and microgreens indicate that blue-light-mediated stem elongation is related to phytochrome activity, which was based on the calculated phytochrome photoequilibrium. To examine whether phytochromes really contribute to the blue light’s effect, plant phenotypic responses were investigated in wild type Arabidopsis (Col-0), and its quintuple phytochrome (phyA phyB phyC phyD phyE) mutant plants under the following light treatments: (1) R, a pure red light from 660-nm LED; (2) B, a pure blue light from 455-nm LED; (3) BR, a impure blue light from LED combination of 94% B and 6% R; and (4) BRF, another impure blue light from LED combination of BR and 6 µmol m−2 s−1 of FR (735 nm). For all the light treatments, a photosynthetic photon flux density of ≈100 μmol m−2 s−1 were provided by 24-h lighting daily inside a walk-in growth chamber, which had an air temperature of ≈ 23 °C. The calculated phytochrome photoequilibrium was 0.89, 0.50, 0.69, and 0.60 for R, B, BR, and BRF, respectively, indicating a higher phytochrome activity under R and BR than B and BRF. After 18 days of light treatment, B or BRF increased main stem length in wild-type plants compared with R, but BR had an inhibition effect similar to R. Also, B and BRF relative to R or BR induced earlier flowering and reduced leaf size in wild type plants, showing typical shade-avoidance responses. In phytochrome-deficient mutant plants, the above shade-avoidance responses were inhibited under B or BRF, and induced under BR. However, as an exception, hypocotyl length, a growth trait during the de-etiolation stage, was reduced under B, BR and BRF vs. R regardless of phytochrome absence. It suggests that for mature Arabidopsis plants, phytochrome plays an active role in blue-light-mediated stem elongation and associated shade-avoidance response.

scholarly journals Photosynthetic Photon Flux, Photoperiod, and CO2 Concentration Affect Growth and Morphology of Lettuce Plug Transplants

HortScience ◽  
1998 ◽  
Vol 33 (6) ◽  
pp. 988-991 ◽  
Author(s):  
Yoshiaki Kitaya ◽  
Genhua Niu ◽  
Toyoki Kozai ◽  
Maki Ohashi
Keyword(s):  
Leaf Area ◽  
Specific Leaf Area ◽  
Dry Mass ◽  
Leaf Length ◽  
Leaf Number ◽  
Photon Flux ◽  
Photosynthetic Photon Flux ◽  
Hypocotyl Length ◽  
R Ratio ◽  
Four Levels

Lettuce (Lactuca sativa L. cv. Summer-green) plug transplants were grown for 3 weeks under 16 combinations of four levels (100, 150, 200, and 300 μmol·m-2·s-1) of photosynthetic photon flux (PPF), two photoperiods (16 and 24 h), and two levels of CO2 (400 and 800 μmol·mol-1) in growth chambers maintained at an air temperature of 20 ±2 °C. As PPF increased, dry mass (DM), percent DM, and leaf number increased, while ratio of shoot to root dry mass (S/R), ratio of leaf length to leaf width (LL/LW), specific leaf area, and hypocotyl length decreased. At the same PPF, DM was increased by 25% to 100% and 10% to 100% with extended photoperiod and elevated CO2 concentration, respectively. Dry mass, percent DM, and leaf number increased linearly with daily light integral (DLI, the product of PPF and photoperiod), while S/R, specific leaf area, LL/LW and hypocotyl length decreased as DLI increased under each CO2 concentration. Hypocotyl length was influenced by PPF and photoperiod, but not by CO2 concentration. Leaf morphology, which can be reflected by LL/LW, was substantially influenced by PPF at 100 to 200 μmol·m-2·s-1, but not at 200 to 300 μmol·m-2·s-1. At the same DLI, the longer photoperiod promoted growth under the low CO2 concentration, but not under the high CO2 concentration. Longer photoperiod and/or higher CO2 concentration compensated for a low PPF.

Phytochrome contributes to blue-light-mediated stem elongation and flower initiation in mature Arabidopsis thaliana plants

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Yun Kong ◽  
Youbin Zheng
Keyword(s):  
Arabidopsis Thaliana ◽  
Blue Light ◽  
Stem Elongation ◽  
Growth Trait ◽  
Stem Length ◽  
Photon Flux ◽  
Flower Initiation ◽  
Shade Avoidance ◽  
Wild Type ◽  
Avoidance Responses

To examine whether phytochromes contribute to blue-light-mediated stem elongation, plant phenotypic responses were investigated in wild type Arabidopsis thaliana (Col-0), and its quintuple phytochrome (phyA phyB phyC phyD phyE) mutant plants under the following light treatments: (1) R, a pure red light from 660-nm LED; (2) B, a pure blue light from 455-nm LED; (3) BR, a impure blue light from LED combination of 94% B and 6% R; and (4) BRF, another impure blue light from LED combination of BR and 6 µmol m−2 s−1 of FR (735 nm). A photosynthetic photon flux density of ≈100 μmol m−2 s−1 was provided for all the light treatments. The calculated phytochrome photoequilibrium was 0.89, 0.50, 0.69, and 0.60 for R, B, BR, and BRF, respectively, indicating a higher phytochrome activity under R and BR than B and BRF. After 18 days of light treatment, B or BRF increased main stem length in wild-type plants compared with R, but BR had an inhibition effect similar to R. Also, B and BRF relative to R or BR induced earlier flowering and reduced leaf size in wild type plants, showing typical shade-avoidance responses. In phytochrome-deficient mutant plants, the above shade-avoidance responses were inhibited under B or BRF. However, hypocotyl length, a growth trait characterizing the de-etiolation stage, was reduced under B, BR and BRF vs. R regardless of phytochrome absence. These findings suggest that for mature Arabidopsis plants, phytochrome plays a role in blue-light-mediated stem elongation and the associated shade-avoidance responses.

scholarly journals Temperature and Photoperiod Effects on Fuchsia × hybrida Morphology

1991 ◽  
Vol 116 (6) ◽  
pp. 955-960 ◽  
Author(s):  
John E. Erwin ◽  
Royal D. Heins ◽  
Roar Moe
Keyword(s):  
Leaf Area ◽  
Stem Elongation ◽  
Leaf Expansion ◽  
Internode Length ◽  
Night Temperature ◽  
Influence Of Temperature ◽  
Influence Of Temperature On ◽  
The Relationship ◽  
Absolute Basis ◽  
Short Days

Fuchsia × hybrids `Dollar Princess' plants were grown under 35 day/night temperature (DT/NT) environments ranging from 10 to 30C over 2 years. Plants were grown under short days (SD) (9-hour 15-minute photoperiod) or long days (LD) (9-hour 15-minute photoperiod plus a 4-hour night interruption) within each environment. The influence of temperature on Fuchsia stem elongation and leaf expansion was best described by the relationship or difference (DIF) between DT and NT (DT - NT) rather than actual DT and NT between 10 and 25C. Both internode length and leaf area increased linearly as DIF increased from - 15 to + 15C with DT and NT between 10 and 25C. Internode length increased 0.129 and 0.071 cm/1C increase in DIF for LD- and SD-grown plants, respectively. Individual leaf area increased 0.52 and 0.40 cm2/1C increase in DIF for LD- and SD-grown plants, respectively. DT or NT above 24C reduced stem elongation and leaf expansion, regardless of DIF. The response of stem elongation and leaf expansion to DIF was greater on a percent basis when plants were grown under SD and LD, respectively. On an absolute basis, both internode length and leaf area were greater on LD-grown plants. Branching increased as average daily temperature decreased from 25 to 12C. Photoperiod did not affect branching.

scholarly journals Only Extreme Fluctuations in Light Levels Reduce Lettuce Growth Under Sole Source Lighting

2021 ◽  
Vol 12 ◽  
Author(s):  
Ruqayah Bhuiyan ◽  
Marc W. van Iersel
Keyword(s):  
Leaf Area ◽  
Chlorophyll Content ◽  
Dry Mass ◽  
Photon Flux ◽  
Electricity Prices ◽  
Poor Growth ◽  
Light Levels ◽  
Fluctuating Light ◽  
Wide Range ◽  
Net Assimilation

The cost of providing lighting in greenhouses and plant factories can be high. In the case of variable electricity prices, providing most of the light when electricity prices are low can reduce costs. However, it is not clear how plants respond to the resulting fluctuating light levels. We hypothesized that plants that receive a constant photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) will produce more biomass than those grown under fluctuating light levels. To understand potential growth reductions caused by fluctuating light levels, we quantified the effects of fluctuating PPFD on the photosynthetic physiology, morphology, and growth of ‘Little Gem’ and ‘Green Salad Bowl’ lettuce. Plants were grown in a growth chamber with dimmable white LED bars, alternating between high and low PPFDs every 15 min. The PPFDs were ∼400/0, 360/40, 320/80, 280/120, 240/160, and 200/200 μmol⋅m−2⋅s–1, with a photoperiod of 16 h and a DLI of ∼11.5 mol⋅m−2⋅day–1 in all treatments. CO2 was ∼800 μmol⋅mol–1. Plants in the 400/0 μmol⋅m−2⋅s–1 treatment had ∼69% lower An,30 (net assimilation averaged over 15 min at high and 15 min at low PPFD) than plants grown at a PPFD of 320/80 μmol⋅m−2⋅s–1 (or treatments with smaller PPFD fluctuations). The low An,30 in the 400/0, and to a lesser extent the 360/40 μmol⋅m−2⋅s–1 treatment was caused by low net assimilation at 360 and 400 μmol⋅m−2⋅s–1. Plants grown at 400/0 μmol⋅m−2⋅s–1 also had fewer leaves and lower chlorophyll content compared to those in other treatments. The four treatments with the smallest PPFD fluctuations produced plants with similar numbers of leaves, chlorophyll content, specific leaf area (SLA), dry mass, and leaf area. Chlorophyll content, An,30, and dry mass were positively correlated with each other. Our results show that lettuce tolerates a wide range of fluctuating PPFD without negative effects on growth and development. However, when fluctuations in PPFD are extreme (400/0 or 360/40 μmol⋅m−2⋅s–1), chlorophyll levels and An,30 are low, which can explain the low poor growth in these treatments. The ability of lettuce to tolerate a wide range of fluctuating light levels suggests that PPFD can be adjusted in response to variable electricity pricing.

scholarly journals Green light reduces elongation when partially replacing sole blue light independently from cryptochrome 1a

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Xue Zhang ◽  
Mehdi bisbis ◽  
Ep Heuvelink ◽  
Weijie Jiang ◽  
Leo F. M Marcelis
Keyword(s):  
Leaf Area ◽  
Blue Light ◽  
Stem Elongation ◽  
Green Light ◽  
Light Response ◽  
Biomass Accumulation ◽  
Photosynthetic Photon Flux Density ◽  
Stem Length ◽  
Photon Flux ◽  
Photon Flux Density

Abstract Although green light is often neglected it can have several effects on plant growth and development. Green light is probably sensed by cryptochromes (crys), one of the blue light photoreceptor families. The aim of this study is to investigate the possible interaction between green and blue light and the involvement of crys in the green light response of plant photomorphogenesis. We hypothesize that green light effects on morphology only occur when crys are activated by the presence of blue light. Wild-type Moneymaker (MM), cry1a mutant (cry1a) and two CRY2 overexpressing transgenic lines (CRY2-OX3 and CRY2-OX8) of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) were grown in a climate chamber without or with green light (30 µmol m− 2 s− 1) on backgrounds of sole red, sole blue and red/blue mixture, with all treatments having the same photosynthetic photon flux density of 150 µmol m− 2 s− 1. Green light showed no significant effect on biomass accumulation, nor on leaf photosynthesis and leaf characteristics such as leaf area, specific leaf area, and chlorophyll content. However, in all genotypes, green light significantly decreased stem length on a sole blue background, whereas green light did not affect stem length on sole red and red/blue mixture background. MM, cry1a and CRY2-OX3/8 plants all exhibited similar responses of stem elongation to green light, indicating that cry1a, and probably cry2, is not involved in this green light effect. We conclude that partially replacing blue light by green light reduces elongation and that this is independent of cry1a.

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