Decline and Revitalization

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Scott Pacey
Keyword(s):  
Twentieth Century ◽  
Belief Systems ◽  
Religious History ◽  
Modern World ◽  
The World ◽  
Monastic Life ◽  
Chinese Buddhists ◽  
The 1960S ◽  
Religious Evolution ◽  
The Military

The General who Awakens the World had, by the 1960s, left the military and resumed his monastic life as Shengyan. Like Yinshun, he would become one of the most significant Chinese Buddhists of the twentieth century. Shengyan’s scholarship on religious history aimed to show how belief systems fit into a scheme of religious evolution, according to which Buddhism— using academic evidence—was judged as more “advanced” than other traditions, including Christianity. Using two of Shengyan’s academic works, this chapter shows how his Buddhist apologetics represented an elaboration of Yinshun’s scholarly approach to upholding notions of Buddhist superiority. Buddhists had lamented what they saw as the decline of their tradition in the twentieth century; Shengyan’s scholarship was also an attempt to restore “true” Buddhism, which would be seen as thoroughly compatible with the modern world.

100 Years Ago: A Bibliographical Calendar of Diplomacy and International Law: In the Years 1914 and 1915

2014 ◽  
Vol 42 (3) ◽  
pp. 517-554 ◽  
Author(s):  
Joachim Schwietzke ◽  
Peter Macalister-Smith
Keyword(s):  
Twentieth Century ◽  
International Law ◽  
Armed Conflict ◽  
First World War ◽  
World War ◽  
World War One ◽  
The First World War ◽  
The World ◽  
The Military ◽  
First World

This Bibliographical Calendar focuses on a general armed conflict within Europe that spread to most parts of the world. It started during the second decade of the twentieth century. In this context the present Calendar offers an overview of the chronology leading up to the First World War. It is also a documented survey of official transactions relating to the World War with particular attention to the sources of record. The main focus of the work is on diplomatic acts of the belligerent and neutral parties that accompanied the military dimension of the conflict.The Calendar assumes the form of a compilation of related kinds of information situated between a bibliography and a repertory, with the aim of elucidating the course of World War One from the perspectives of international law and diplomacy.

Modern-World Archaeology

2014 ◽  
Author(s):  
Charles E. Orser
Keyword(s):  
Twentieth Century ◽  
Historical Archaeology ◽  
First Century ◽  
Modern World ◽  
World Archaeology ◽  
The World ◽  
The Creation ◽  
Twenty First Century ◽  
Historical Antecedents

Historical archaeology has grown exponentially since its inception. By the beginning of the second decade of the twenty-first century, practitioners of the field had conducted research throughout the world in locales only imagined in the mid-twentieth century. The spread of historical archaeology in Europe, Asia, and Africa—and other places with long, rich documentary histories—has meant that two senses of ‘historical archaeology’ now exist. The creation of modern-world archaeology seeks to define an archaeology of the post-Columbian world as an archaeology explicitly engaged in investigating the historical antecedents of our present age. This chapter explains the rationale behind the creation of modern-world archaeology, outlines some of its central tenets, and provides a brief example of one subject of relevance to the field.

Project Context Rediscovery and Exploration

2019 ◽  
Author(s):  
Simon James
Keyword(s):  
Twentieth Century ◽  
World War I ◽  
Yale University ◽  
World War ◽  
French Academy ◽  
Military Presence ◽  
The World ◽  
Western Scholarship ◽  
The Military ◽  
Small Team

The ruined city known locally as Salhiyeh was virtually unknown to western scholarship until the twentieth century (Sarre and Herzfeld 1920, 386–95; Kaizer 2017, 64), but its ancient identity remained unknown until the aftermath of the World War I when collapse of the Ottoman empire saw Britain and France divide up much of the Middle East between them (Velud 1988; Barr 2011). As we saw, during operations against Arabs resisting the new western occupation, British-commanded Indian troops bivouacking at the site dug defensive positions and accidentally revealed wall paintings. These were seen and published by visiting American archaeologist James Henry Breasted (Breasted 1922; 1924), who first identified the ruins as those of the historically attested but unlocated ‘Dura . . . called Europos by the Greeks’ (Isidore of Charax, Parthian Stations, 1). The site thereafter fell inside the newly imposed borders of French-controlled Syria (Velud 1988). More substantial excavations were conducted and published with exemplary speed by Franz Cumont in 1922–3 (Cumont 1926), paving the way for the great Yale University/French Academy expedition overseen by Mikhail Rostovtzeff. This ran over ten seasons: (Dates from the Preliminary Reports, and Hopkins 1979, xxii–xxiv, except ninth and tenth seasons from information in Yale archives provided by Megan Doyon and Richard A. Grossmann.) With a Roman military presence attested from the outset, further traces were encountered throughout the city’s exploration, with the heart of the military base area being identified and excavated in the fifth season, and the great ‘Palace of the dux ripae’ in the ninth. While masterminded by Rostovtzeff, and more nominally Cumont, these giants actually only briefly visited the excavations on a couple of occasions. The dig was conducted under a series of field directors: Maurice Pillet, Clark Hopkins, and finally Frank Brown. These led a small team of American and European architects, artists, and archaeologists, mostly male (although women occupied prominent places on the team, including Yale graduate student Margaret Crosby and most notably Hopkins’s wife Susan); they were mostly young and inexperienced (including Hopkins and Brown).

EVOLUTION OF PRIVATE MILITARY COMPANIES IN THE WORLD

2019 ◽  
pp. 107-113
Author(s):  
Sergey Vladimirovich Shishmonin
Keyword(s):  
Active Role ◽  
The United States ◽  
Modern World ◽  
Private Military Companies ◽  
The World ◽  
Versatile Tool ◽  
History Of ◽  
Ancient Times ◽  
Private Corporations ◽  
The Military

In a rapidly changing and unstable situation on the world stage, private military companies are present and developing very effectively in the military sphere. Relation to private military companies is a relatively new actors in the military sphere, is not clear. The history of formation and development of these organizations is short, but very bright. Mercenarism and prototypes of private military companies were known in ancient times. We show the evolution of private military companies from mercenaries to modern companies. In the modern sense of the term private military companies began to be actively created only in the middle of the 20th century. European states, in particular, the United States, played an active role in these processes. This state also went down in history as the first legally regulate the activities of military companies. In just over half a century, private military companies have been involved in many military conflicts and have proven to be a highly mobile and versatile tool for addressing geopolitical and state tasks. Since the early of 21th century, international private corporations and enterprises have become interested in the services of these organizations. The private-military segment of the market is developing very actively and steadily in the conditions of the modern world situation.

Youth as a Force in the Modern World

1968 ◽  
Vol 10 (3) ◽  
pp. 237-260 ◽  
Author(s):  
Herbert Moller
Keyword(s):  
Twentieth Century ◽  
Young People ◽  
Demographic Variable ◽  
Age Distribution ◽  
Political Life ◽  
Modern World ◽  
World Population ◽  
Historical Experience ◽  
The World

The unprecedented number of young people in the world today can be isolated as one of the crucial reality factors conditioning political and cultural developments. Age distribution is only one demographic variable in the complex of social and political life, but the tremendous growth of world population in the twentieth century has magnified its dynamic potentialities. To gain perspective, it will be useful to briefly consider the role of youth in the light of historical experience.

scholarly journals De um ditador civil aos ditadores militares

2012 ◽  
Vol 1 (2) ◽  
Author(s):  
Franciel José Ganancini
Keyword(s):  
Twentieth Century ◽  
Political History ◽  
Armed Forces ◽  
Military Coup ◽  
The Political ◽  
Cultural Changes ◽  
The World ◽  
History Of ◽  
Getulio Vargas ◽  
The Military

Resumo: Este artigo aborda uma parte da história política do Brasil, situando o período compreendido entre os governos de Getúlio Vargas, a partir de 1930, e o golpe civil-militar de 1964. O referido período esteve marcado por profundas mudanças econômicas, políticas e culturais, seja no Brasil, seja no restante do mundo. No artigo abordaremos a ascensão de Getúlio Vargas, o seu relacionamento com os militares, bem como o fortalecimento das Forças Armadas e sua atuação na política brasileira do século XX. Palavras-chave: Getúlio Vargas. Forças Armadas. Golpe de 1964. FROM A CIVIL DICTATOR TO MILITARY DICTATORS Abstract: This article discusses some of the political history of Brazil, closing the period between Getulio Vargas’s governments, in 1930, and civil-military coup in 1964. This period was marked by deep economic, political and cultural changes, both in Brazil and in the world. In this article we discuss the rise of Getulio Vargas’s government, his relationship with the military, as well as the strengthening of the armed forces and its role in the twentieth century Brazilian politics. Keywords: Getúlio Vargas. Military Forces. Coup of 1964.

Davidson, Donald (1917–2003)

2018 ◽  
Author(s):  
Ernie Lepore ◽  
Jeff Malpas
Keyword(s):  
Twentieth Century ◽  
Causal Explanation ◽  
Other Minds ◽  
Central Figure ◽  
American Philosophy ◽  
The World ◽  
1960S And 1970S ◽  
The 1960S ◽  
The Mind ◽  
Core Issues

Donald Davidson is a central figure in twentieth-century American philosophy. Of the five volumes that make up Davidson’s collected essays, the best known are the first two, Essays on Actions and Events (2001a [1980]) and Inquiries into Truth and Interpretation (2001b [1984]), which draw together his work from the 1960s and 1970s, and include many seminal contributions to the philosophy of action, mind, and language. Davidson’s later writings, from the 1980s, 1990s, and early 2000s, are less well-known in their entirety, but also include many significant and influential essays particularly on questions of truth and knowledge, as well as on content and the mind. Of these three later volumes, the most important is undoubtedly Subjective, Intersubjective, Objective (2001c), in which Davidson’s commitment to a holistic or ‘relational’ view of the mind – a view that also sees the mind as necessarily implicated with and implicating other minds and the world – appears in its most explicit form. Problems of Rationality (2004) and Truth, Language and History (2005a) were published posthumously, along with Truth and Predication (2005b), the latter being Davidson’s only published monograph. Influential on an entire generation of philosophers, Davidson opened up new approaches to the study of intention, action, causal explanation, rationality and irrationality, the nature of truth and knowledge, first person authority, indexicals, modality, reference, quotation, metaphor, indeterminacy, convention, realism and the publicity of language. Although connecting with core issues in analytic philosophy, Davidson’s work has also been seen as having close affinities with important aspects of hermeneutic, deconstructionist, and pragmatist thinking.

Introduction

2020 ◽  
pp. 1-12
Author(s):  
Khary Oronde Polk
Keyword(s):  
Twentieth Century ◽  
African American ◽  
Sexual Difference ◽  
Citizenship Rights ◽  
Unique Role ◽  
Military Conscription ◽  
The World ◽  
Definition Of ◽  
The Military ◽  
Key Terms

This introduction provides a framework for considering America’s military conscription of gender, racial, and sexual difference in the early to mid-twentieth century, and the unique role Black military workers played in the extension of U.S. empire. Beginning with the definition of militarism as conceived by Alfred Vagts, the author makes an appeal for both conservative and progressive scholars to focus on the study of the military. Immunity and contagion are introduced as key terms used to analyze the movement of African American soldiers around the world, and to show how their quests for citizenship rights was burdened by antiblack racism. A chapter breakdown demonstrates how race, nation, masculinity, and sexuality are important subjects in the archive of American militarism, and argues that a new chapter of African American life was brought into being through the imperial conscription of racial, gender, and sexual difference.

Marriage Broking: Catalysis

Reactions ◽  
2011 ◽  
Author(s):  
Peter Atkins
Keyword(s):  
Twentieth Century ◽  
Everyday Life ◽  
Chemical Industry ◽  
The Other ◽  
Modern World ◽  
Homogeneous Catalyst ◽  
Chinese Characters ◽  
Industrial Chemistry ◽  
The World ◽  
Fritz Haber

A ‘catalyst’ is a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without itself being consumed. The Chinese characters for catalyst, which translate as ‘marriage broker’, convey the sense exactly. For instance, a huge advance in industrial chemistry was achieved early in the twentieth century when the German chemist Fritz Haber (1868–1934) found that nitrogen and hydrogen could be induced to combine to form ammonia, NH3, if the two gases were heated under pressure in the presence of iron. They hardly react at all if iron is not present. Haber’s achievement has helped to save the world, as well as contributing not a little to its destruction. Ammonia is of prime importance for the production of fertilizers, and through that application catalysis has helped to feed the world. Ammonia is also of prime importance for the manufacture of explosives, and through that application catalysis has taken away with that hand some of what the other hand has provided. The chemical industry could not function without catalysts as they enable reactions to occur at economically viable rates. They also enable some reactions to occur which in their absence would not occur at all. Catalysts are used to refine fuels, thus enabling transport. They are used in the manufacture of polymers, thus enabling the fabrication of so many of the artefacts of everyday life as well as the fabrics of fashion and furnishings. Without catalysts there would be very little of what we recognize as the familiar modern world. Our bodies also function under the control of catalysts. Biological catalysts are called enzymes, and I describe their function in Reaction 27. There are two broad classes of catalyst. A ‘heterogeneous catalyst’ is typically a solid and the reagents are liquids or gases that flow over the solid and react as they come into contact with it; this is the case with Haber’s catalyst. A ‘homogeneous catalyst’ is a gas or a substance that dissolves in a liquid reaction mixture. Anthropogenic (human-made) chorine atoms, perhaps from aerosol gases that have travelled up into the stratosphere, are homogeneous catalysts for the destruction of ozone.

Wars and Rumors of Wars

2019 ◽  
pp. 12-35
Author(s):  
Brian Stanley
Keyword(s):  
Twentieth Century ◽  
First World War ◽  
Modern World ◽  
Christian Belief ◽  
World War ◽  
Protestant Churches ◽  
The First World War ◽  
The World ◽  
Definition Of ◽  
First World

This chapter suggests that the consequences of the First World War for patterns of Christian belief and the life of the churches were indeed great, but that they stimulated, not an immediate loss of faith, but rather the emergence and increasingly distinct self-definition of some of the most characteristic themes and divergent styles of Christianity in the modern world. It then identifies the main implications of the war for Christianity on a world stage. First, the war came close to destroying the spirit of Protestant internationalism that had been so powerfully symbolized and fostered by the World Missionary Conference held at Edinburgh in June of 1910. A second consequence of the war was the gradual erosion of credibility of the European ideal of “Christian civilization,” and consequent softening of the antithesis between “Christian West” and “Non-Christian East.” Third, the war led some theological interpreters to question the more facile expressions of Christian liberalism and social optimism to which sections of the Protestant churches had succumbed since the dawn of the twentieth century. A fourth spiritual consequence of the war was the stimulus it imparted to forms of religion that emphasized the suprarational, and hence the limits of rational human capacity to change the world.

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