Soil nitrogen oxide fluxes from lowland forests converted smallholder rubber and oil palm plantations in Sumatra, Indonesia

Abstract. Oil palm and rubber plantations cover large areas of former rainforest in Sumatra, Indonesia, supplying the global demand for these crops. Although forest conversion is known to influence soil nitrous oxide (N2O) and nitric oxide (NO) fluxes, measurements from oil palm and rubber plantations are scarce (for N2O) or nonexistent (for NO). Our study aimed to (1) quantify changes in soil-atmosphere fluxes of N oxides with forest conversion to rubber and oil palm plantations, and (2) determine their controlling factors. In Jambi, Sumatra, we selected two landscapes that mainly differed in texture but both on heavily weathered soils: loam and clay Acrisol soils. Within each landscape, we investigated lowland forest, rubber trees interspersed in secondary forest (termed as jungle rubber), both as reference land uses, and smallholder rubber and oil palm plantations, as converted land uses. Each land use had four replicate plots within each landscape. Soil N2O fluxes were measured monthly from December 2012 to December 2013, and soil NO fluxes were measured four times between March and September 2013. In the loam Acrisol landscape, we also conducted weekly to bi-weekly soil N2O flux measurements from July 2014 to July 2015 in a large-scale oil palm plantation with four replicate plots for comparison with smallholder oil palm plantations. Land-use conversion to smallholder plantations had no effect on soil N-oxide fluxes (P = 0.58 to 0.76) due to the generally low soil N availability in the reference land uses that further decreased with land-use conversion. Over one-year measurements, the temporal patterns of soil N-oxide fluxes were influenced by soil mineral N and water contents. Across landscapes, annual soil N2O emissions were controlled by gross nitrification and sand content, which also suggest the influence of soil N and water availability. Soil N2O fluxes (µg N m−2 h−1) were: 7 ± 2 to 14 ± 7 (reference land uses), 6 ± 3 to 9 ± 2 (rubber), 12 ± 3 to 12 ± 6 (smallholder oil palm), and 42 ± 24 (large-scale oil palm). Soil NO fluxes (µg N m−2 h−1) were: −0.6 ± 0.7 to 5.7 ± 5.8 (reference land uses), −1.2 ± 0.5 to −1.0 ± 0.2 (rubber) and −0.2 ± 1.2 to 0.7 ± 0.7 (smallholder oil palm). The low N fertilizer application in smallholder oil palm plantations (commonly 48 to 88 kg N ha−1 yr−1) resulted in N-oxide losses of only 0.2–0.7 % of the applied N. To improve estimate of soil N-oxide fluxes from oil palm plantations in this region, studies should focus on large-scale plantations (which usually have two to four times higher N fertilization rates than smallholders) with frequent measurements following fertilizer application.

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Soil nitrogen oxide fluxes from lowland forests converted to smallholder rubber and oil palm plantations in Sumatra, Indonesia

Biogeosciences ◽

10.5194/bg-14-2781-2017 ◽

2017 ◽

Vol 14 (11) ◽

pp. 2781-2798 ◽

Cited By ~ 16

Author(s):

Evelyn Hassler ◽

Marife D. Corre ◽

Syahrul Kurniawan ◽

Edzo Veldkamp

Keyword(s):

Land Use ◽

Oil Palm ◽

Large Scale ◽

Forest Conversion ◽

Land Uses ◽

Soil N ◽

Land Use Conversion ◽

Lowland Forests ◽

N2o Fluxes ◽

No Fluxes

Abstract. Oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) and rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) plantations cover large areas of former rainforest in Sumatra, Indonesia, supplying the global demand for these crops. Although forest conversion is known to influence soil nitrous oxide (N2O) and nitric oxide (NO) fluxes, measurements from oil palm and rubber plantations are scarce (for N2O) or nonexistent (for NO). Our study aimed to (1) quantify changes in soil–atmosphere fluxes of N oxides with forest conversion to rubber and oil palm plantations and (2) determine their controlling factors. In Jambi, Sumatra, we selected two landscapes that mainly differed in texture but were both on heavily weathered soils: loam and clay Acrisol soils. Within each landscape, we investigated lowland forests, rubber trees interspersed in secondary forest (termed as jungle rubber), both as reference land uses and smallholder rubber and oil palm plantations as converted land uses. In the loam Acrisol landscape, we conducted a follow-on study in a large-scale oil palm plantation (called PTPN VI) for comparison of soil N2O fluxes with smallholder oil palm plantations. Land-use conversion to smallholder plantations had no effect on soil N-oxide fluxes (P = 0. 58 to 0.76) due to the generally low soil N availability in the reference land uses that further decreased with land-use conversion. Soil N2O fluxes from the large-scale oil palm plantation did not differ with those from smallholder plantations (P = 0. 15). Over 1-year measurements, the temporal patterns of soil N-oxide fluxes were influenced by soil mineral N and water contents. Across landscapes, annual soil N2O emissions were controlled by gross nitrification and sand content, which also suggest the influence of soil N and water availability. Soil N2O fluxes (µg N m−2 h−1) were 7 ± 2 to 14 ± 7 (reference land uses), 6 ± 3 to 9 ± 2 (rubber), 12 ± 3 to 12 ± 6 (smallholder oil palm) and 42 ± 24 (large-scale oil palm). Soil NO fluxes (µg N m−2 h−1) were −0.6 ± 0.7 to 5.7 ± 5.8 (reference land uses), −1.2 ± 0.5 to −1.0 ± 0.2 (rubber) and −0.2 ± 1.2 to 0.7 ± 0.7 (smallholder oil palm). To improve the estimate of soil N-oxide fluxes from oil palm plantations in this region, studies should focus on large-scale plantations (which usually have 2 to 4 times higher N fertilization rates than smallholders) with frequent measurements following fertilizer application.

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SOC Stock Changes and Greenhouse Gas Emissions Following Tropical Land Use Conversions to Plantation Crops on Mineral Soils, with a Special Focus on Oil Palm and Rubber Plantations

Agriculture ◽

10.3390/agriculture8090133 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 8 (9) ◽

pp. 133 ◽

Cited By ~ 9

Author(s):

Sanjutha Shanmugam ◽

Ram Dalal ◽

Hans Joosten ◽

R. Raison ◽

Goh Joo

Keyword(s):

Land Use ◽

Greenhouse Gas ◽

Oil Palm ◽

Ghg Emissions ◽

Land Use Conversion ◽

Rubber Plantations ◽

Soc Stock ◽

Mineral Soils ◽

The Tropics ◽

Soc Stocks

The increasing global demand for vegetable oils has resulted in a significant increase in the area under oil palm in the tropics during the last couple of decades, and this is projected to increase further. The Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil discourages the conversion of peatlands to oil palm and rubber plantations. However, our understanding of the effects on soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks and associated greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of land use conversion is incomplete, especially for mineral soils under primary forests, secondary forests, rubber and other perennial plantations in the tropics. In this review we synthesised information on SOC stocks and GHG emissions from tropical mineral soils under forest, oil palm and rubber plantations and other agroecosystems across the tropical regions. We found that the largest SOC losses occurred after land use conversion from primary forest to oil palm and rubber plantations. Secondary forest and pasture lands showed lower SOC losses as well as total GHG (CO2, N2O and CH4) emissions when converted to oil palm and rubber plantations. However, due to the limited data available on all three GHG emissions, there remains high uncertainty in GHG emissions estimates, and regional GHG accounting is more reliable. We recommend long-term monitoring of oil palm and other perennial plantations established on tropical mineral soils on different soil types and regions on SOC stock changes and total GHG emissions and evaluate appropriate management practices to optimise production and sustainable economic returns, and minimise environmental impact.

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Conversion of tropical forests to smallholder rubber and oil palm plantations impacts nutrient leaching losses and nutrient retention efficiency in highly weathered soils

Biogeosciences ◽

10.5194/bg-15-5131-2018 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 15 (16) ◽

pp. 5131-5154 ◽

Cited By ~ 13

Author(s):

Syahrul Kurniawan ◽

Marife D. Corre ◽

Amanda L. Matson ◽

Hubert Schulte-Bisping ◽

Sri Rahayu Utami ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Land Use ◽

Oil Palm ◽

Nutrient Retention ◽

Nutrient Leaching ◽

Land Uses ◽

Retention Efficiency ◽

Organic C ◽

Leaching Losses ◽

Land Use Conversion ◽

Jungle Rubber

Abstract. Conversion of forest to rubber and oil palm plantations is widespread in Sumatra, Indonesia, and it is largely unknown how such land-use conversion affects nutrient leaching losses. Our study aimed to quantify nutrient leaching and nutrient retention efficiency in the soil after land-use conversion to smallholder rubber and oil palm plantations. In Jambi province, Indonesia, we selected two landscapes on highly weathered Acrisol soils that mainly differed in texture: loam and clay. Within each soil type, we compared two reference land uses, lowland forest and jungle rubber (defined as rubber trees interspersed in secondary forest), with two converted land uses: smallholder rubber and oil palm plantations. Within each soil type, the first three land uses were represented by 4 replicate sites and the oil palm by three sites, totaling 30 sites. We measured leaching losses using suction cup lysimeters sampled biweekly to monthly from February to December 2013. Forests and jungle rubber had low solute concentrations in drainage water, suggesting low internal inputs of rock-derived nutrients and efficient internal cycling of nutrients. These reference land uses on the clay Acrisol soils had lower leaching of dissolved N and base cations (P= 0.01–0.06) and higher N and base cation retention efficiency (P < 0.01–0.07) than those on the loam Acrisols. In the converted land uses, particularly on the loam Acrisol, the fertilized area of oil palm plantations showed higher leaching of dissolved N, organic C, and base cations (P < 0.01–0.08) and lower N and base cation retention efficiency compared to all the other land uses (P < 0.01–0.06). The unfertilized rubber plantations, particularly on the loam Acrisol, showed lower leaching of dissolved P (P=0.08) and organic C (P < 0.01) compared to forest or jungle rubber, reflecting decreases in soil P stocks and C inputs to the soil. Our results suggest that land-use conversion to rubber and oil palm causes disruption of initially efficient nutrient cycling, which decreases nutrient availability. Over time, smallholders will likely be increasingly reliant on fertilization, with the risk of diminishing water quality due to increased nutrient leaching. Thus, there is a need to develop management practices to minimize leaching while sustaining productivity.

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Conversion of tropical forests to smallholder rubber and oil palm plantations impacts nutrient leaching losses and nutrient retention efficiency in highly weathered soils

10.5194/bg-2018-221 ◽

2018 ◽

Author(s):

Syahrul Kurniawan ◽

Marife D. Corre ◽

Amanda L. Matson ◽

Hubert Schulte-Bisping ◽

Sri Rahayu Utami ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Land Use ◽

Oil Palm ◽

Secondary Forest ◽

Nutrient Retention ◽

Nutrient Leaching ◽

Land Uses ◽

Retention Efficiency ◽

Leaching Losses ◽

Land Use Conversion ◽

Jungle Rubber

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Reviews and syntheses: Soil N<sub>2</sub>O and NO emissions from land use and land-use change in the tropics and subtropics: a meta-analysis

Biogeosciences ◽

10.5194/bg-12-7299-2015 ◽

2015 ◽

Vol 12 (23) ◽

pp. 7299-7313 ◽

Cited By ~ 48

Author(s):

J. van Lent ◽

K. Hergoualc'h ◽

L. V. Verchot

Keyword(s):

Land Use ◽

Land Use Change ◽

Nitrogen Availability ◽

Meta Analysis ◽

Forest Conversion ◽

N2o Emissions ◽

Emission Rates ◽

Soil N ◽

The Tropics ◽

No Emissions

Abstract. Deforestation and forest degradation in the tropics may substantially alter soil N-oxide emissions. It is particularly relevant to accurately quantify those changes to properly account for them in a REDD+ climate change mitigation scheme that provides financial incentives to reduce the emissions. With this study we provide updated land use (LU)-based emission rates (104 studies, 392 N2O and 111 NO case studies), we determine the trend and magnitude of flux changes with land-use change (LUC) using a meta-analysis approach (44 studies, 135 N2O and 37 NO cases) and evaluate biophysical drivers of N2O and NO emissions and emission changes for the tropics. The average N2O and NO emissions in intact upland tropical forest amounted to 2.0 ± 0.2 (n = 90) and 1.7 ± 0.5 (n = 36) kg N ha−1 yr−1, respectively. In agricultural soils annual N2O emissions were exponentially related to N fertilization rates and average water-filled pore space (WFPS) whereas in non-agricultural sites a Gaussian response to WFPS fit better with the observed NO and N2O emissions. The sum of soil N2O and NO fluxes and the ratio of N2O to NO increased exponentially and significantly with increasing nitrogen availability (expressed as NO3− / [NO3−+NH4+]) and WFPS, respectively; following the conceptual Hole-In-the-Pipe model. Nitrous and nitric oxide fluxes did not increase significantly overall as a result of LUC (Hedges's d of 0.11 ± 0.11 and 0.16 ± 0.19, respectively), however individual LUC trajectories or practices did. Nitrous oxide fluxes increased significantly after intact upland forest conversion to croplands (Hedges's d = 0.78 ± 0.24) and NO increased significantly following the conversion of low forest cover (secondary forest younger than 30 years, woodlands, shrublands) (Hedges's d of 0.44 ± 0.13). Forest conversion to fertilized systems significantly and highly raised both N2O and NO emission rates (Hedges's d of 1.03 ± 0.23 and 0.52 ± 0.09, respectively). Changes in nitrogen availability and WFPS were the main factors explaining changes in N2O emissions following LUC, therefore it is important that experimental designs monitor their spatio-temporal variation. Gaps in the literature on N oxide fluxes included geographical gaps (Africa, Oceania) and LU gaps (degraded forest, wetland (notably peat) forest, oil palm plantation and soy cultivation).

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Impact of forest conversion to oil palm and rubber plantations on microclimate and the role of the 2015 ENSO event

Agricultural and Forest Meteorology ◽

10.1016/j.agrformet.2018.01.013 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 252 ◽

pp. 208-219 ◽

Cited By ~ 26

Author(s):

Ana Meijide ◽

Chandra Shekhar Badu ◽

Fernando Moyano ◽

Nina Tiralla ◽

Dodo Gunawan ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Oil Palm ◽

Enso Event ◽

Forest Conversion ◽

Rubber Plantations

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Interface Urban Forest Management in an Urbanizing Landscape

Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Environmental Science ◽

10.1093/acrefore/9780199389414.013.666 ◽

2020 ◽

Author(s):

Maria A. Cunha-e-Sá ◽

Sofia F. Franco

Keyword(s):

Land Use ◽

Forest Management ◽

Urban Areas ◽

Urban Forest ◽

Urban Forestry ◽

Comparative Statics ◽

Forest Conversion ◽

Timber Production ◽

Land Uses ◽

Clear Cutting

Although forests located near urban areas are a small fraction of the forest cover, a good understanding of the extent to which —wildland-urban interface (WUI) forest conversion affects local economies and environmental services can help policy-makers harmonize urban development and environmental preservation at this interface, with positive impact on the welfare of local communities. A growing part of the forest resource worldwide has come under urban influence, both directly (i.e., becoming incorporated into the interface or located at the interface with urban areas) and indirectly (as urban uses and values have come to dominate more remote forest areas). Yet forestry has been rather hesitant to recognize its urban mandate. Even if the decision to convert land at the WUI (agriculture, fruit, timber, or rural use) into an alternative use (residential and commercial development) is conditional on the relative magnitude and timing of the returns of alternative land uses, urban forestry is still firmly rooted in the same basic concepts of traditional forestry. This in turn neglects features characterizing this type of forestland, such as the urban influences from increasingly land-consumptive development patterns. Moreover, interface timber production-allocated land provides public goods that otherwise would be permanently lost if land were converted to an irreversible use. Any framework discussing WUI optimal rotation periods and conversion dates should then incorporate the urban dimension in the forester problem. It must reflect the factors that influence both urban and forestry uses and account for the fact that some types of land use conversion are irreversible. The goal is to present a framework that serves as a first step in explaining the trends in the use and management of private land for timber production in an urbanizing environment. Our framework integrates different land uses to understand two questions: given that most of the WUI land use change is irreversible and forestry at this interface differs from classic forestry, how does urban forestry build upon and benefit from traditional forestry concepts and approaches? In particular, what are the implications for the Faustmann harvesting strategy when conversion to an irreversible land use occurs at some point in the future? The article begins with a short background on the worldwide trend of forestland conversion at the WUI, focusing mostly on the case of developed countries. This provides a context for the theoretical framework used in the subsequent analysis of how urban factors affect regeneration and conversion dates. The article further reviews theoretical models of forest management practices that have considered either land sale following clear-cutting or a switch to a more profitable alternative land use without selling the land. A brief discussion on the studies with a generalization of the classic Faustmann formula for land expectation value is also included. For completeness, comparative statics results and a numerical illustration of the main findings from the private landowner framework are included.

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Local Perspectives on Ecosystem Service Trade-Offs in a Forest Frontier Landscape in Myanmar

Land ◽

10.3390/land8030045 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 8 (3) ◽

pp. 45 ◽

Cited By ~ 10

Author(s):

Melanie Feurer ◽

Andreas Heinimann ◽

Flurina Schneider ◽

Christine Jurt ◽

Win Myint ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Land Use ◽

Oil Palm ◽

Land Use Changes ◽

Forest Products ◽

Well Being ◽

Rubber Plantations ◽

Trade Offs ◽

Land User ◽

The Impact ◽

Local Perspectives

Extensive land use changes in forest frontier landscapes are leading to trade-offs in the supply of ecosystem services (ES) with, in many cases, as yet unknown effects on human well-being. In the Tanintharyi Region of Myanmar, a forest frontier landscape facing oil palm and rubber expansion, little is known about local perspectives on ES and the direct impact of trade-offs from land use change. This study assessed the trade-offs experienced with respect to 10 locally important ES from land user perspectives using social valuation techniques. The results show that while intact forests provide the most highly valued ES bundle, the conversion to rubber plantations entails fewer negative trade-offs than that to oil palm. Rubber plantations offer income, fuelwood, a good microclimate, and even new cultural identities. By contrast, oil palm concessions have caused environmental pollution, and, most decisively, have restricted local people’s access to the respective lands. The ES water flow regulation is seen as the most critical if more forest is converted; other ES, such as non-timber forest products, can be more easily substituted. We conclude that, from local perspectives, the impact of ES trade-offs highly depends on access to land and opportunities to adapt to change.

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Costs and Carbon Sequestration Assessment for REDD+ in Indonesia

Forests ◽

10.3390/f11070770 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 11 (7) ◽

pp. 770

Author(s):

Guifang Liu ◽

Qing Liu ◽

Mengxiao Song ◽

Junsheng Chen ◽

Chuanrong Zhang ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Land Use ◽

Carbon Sequestration ◽

Carbon Emissions ◽

Oil Palm ◽

Forest Degradation ◽

Opportunity Costs ◽

Forest Conversion ◽

Tropical Regions ◽

Sensitivity Assessment ◽

Gain Loss

Research Highlights: Our findings highlight that the contribution of carbon sequestration from plantations to REDD+ will remain limited, and that opportunity costs in Southeast Asia will likely increase, due to future oil palm expansion. Background and Objectives: Land use, land-use change, and forestry (LULUCF) are significant sources of carbon emissions. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) agreed that the Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation Plus program, also known as REDD+, could contribute to carbon sinks in tropical regions. These reductions could serve as carbon credits that offset emissions from other sources. Materials and Methods: This study uses the cellular automaton technique to simulate the business-as-usual (BAU) scenario and the gain-loss method, to measure carbon emissions resulting from forest conversion. The output of the integration of the models makes it possible to evaluate one of the most important financial costs: opportunity costs. Two scenarios (with and without consideration of carbon sequestration) in rubber and oil palm plantations are examined. Results: A sensitivity assessment in Kalimantan, Indonesia, shows that carbon sequestration from plantations affects value of opportunity costs less than social discount rates. Further analysis suggests that oil palm plantations have a greater impact than rubber plantations. Conclusions: Our study provides a case that can be applied to other regions for evaluating the impacts of plantation carbon sequestration, and insights that can help local policymakers design a financially attractive REDD+ program in other forest areas of the world.

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Impacts of near-future cultivation of biofuel feedstocks on atmospheric composition and local air quality

Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics Discussions ◽

10.5194/acpd-11-24857-2011 ◽

2011 ◽

Vol 11 (9) ◽

pp. 24857-24881 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

K. Ashworth ◽

G. Folberth ◽

C. N. Hewitt ◽

O. Wild

Keyword(s):

Land Use ◽

Air Quality ◽

Oil Palm ◽

Large Scale ◽

Global Climate ◽

Land Use Changes ◽

Regional Scale ◽

Atmospheric Composition ◽

Scale Production ◽

Reactive Trace Gases

Abstract. Large-scale production of feedstock crops for biofuels will lead to land-use changes. We quantify the effects of realistic land use change scenarios for biofuel feedstock production on isoprene emissions and hence atmospheric composition and chemistry using the HadGEM2 model. Two feedstocks are considered: oil palm for biodiesel in the tropics and short rotation coppice (SRC) in the mid-latitudes. In total, 69 Mha of oil palm and 92 Mha of SRC are planted, each sufficient to replace just over 1 % of projected global fossil fuel demand in 2020. Both planting scenarios result in increases in total global annual isoprene emissions of about 1 %. In each case, changes in surface concentrations of ozone and biogenic secondary organic aerosol (bSOA) are significant at the regional scale and are detectable even at a global scale with implications for air quality standards. However, the changes in tropospheric burden of ozone and the OH radical, and hence effects on global climate, are negligible. The oil palm plantations and processing plants result in global average annual mean increases in ozone and bSOA of 38 pptv and 2 ng m−3 respectively. Over SE Asia, one region of planting, increases reach over 2 ppbv and 300 ng m−3 for large parts of Borneo. Planting of SRC causes global annual mean changes of 46 pptv and 3 ng m−3. Europe experiences peak monthly mean changes of almost 0.6 ppbv and 90 ng m−3 in June and July. Large areas of Central and Eastern Europe see changes of over 1.5 ppbv and 200 ng m−3 in the summer. That such significant atmospheric impacts from low level planting scenarios are discernible globally clearly demonstrates the need to include changes in emissions of reactive trace gases such as isoprene in life cycle assessments performed on potential biofuel feedstocks.

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