SOC Stock Changes and Greenhouse Gas Emissions Following Tropical Land Use Conversions to Plantation Crops on Mineral Soils, with a Special Focus on Oil Palm and Rubber Plantations

The increasing global demand for vegetable oils has resulted in a significant increase in the area under oil palm in the tropics during the last couple of decades, and this is projected to increase further. The Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil discourages the conversion of peatlands to oil palm and rubber plantations. However, our understanding of the effects on soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks and associated greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of land use conversion is incomplete, especially for mineral soils under primary forests, secondary forests, rubber and other perennial plantations in the tropics. In this review we synthesised information on SOC stocks and GHG emissions from tropical mineral soils under forest, oil palm and rubber plantations and other agroecosystems across the tropical regions. We found that the largest SOC losses occurred after land use conversion from primary forest to oil palm and rubber plantations. Secondary forest and pasture lands showed lower SOC losses as well as total GHG (CO2, N2O and CH4) emissions when converted to oil palm and rubber plantations. However, due to the limited data available on all three GHG emissions, there remains high uncertainty in GHG emissions estimates, and regional GHG accounting is more reliable. We recommend long-term monitoring of oil palm and other perennial plantations established on tropical mineral soils on different soil types and regions on SOC stock changes and total GHG emissions and evaluate appropriate management practices to optimise production and sustainable economic returns, and minimise environmental impact.

Download Full-text

Carbon neutral expansion of oil palm plantations in the Neotropics

Science Advances ◽

10.1126/sciadv.aaw4418 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 5 (11) ◽

pp. eaaw4418 ◽

Cited By ~ 9

Author(s):

Juan Carlos Quezada ◽

Andres Etter ◽

Jaboury Ghazoul ◽

Alexandre Buttler ◽

Thomas Guillaume

Keyword(s):

Land Use ◽

Land Use Change ◽

Oil Palm ◽

Carbon Pools ◽

Ecosystem Carbon ◽

The Tropics ◽

Carbon Losses ◽

Soc Stocks ◽

Ecosystem Carbon Pools

Alternatives to ecologically devastating deforestation land use change trajectories are needed to reduce the carbon footprint of oil palm (OP) plantations in the tropics. Although various land use change options have been proposed, so far, there are no empirical data on their long-term ecosystem carbon pools effects. Our results demonstrate that pasture-to-OP conversion in savanna regions does not change ecosystem carbon storage, after 56 years in Colombia. Compared to rainforest conversion, this alternative land use change reduces net ecosystem carbon losses by 99.7 ± 9.6%. Soil organic carbon (SOC) decreased until 36 years after conversion, due to a fast decomposition of pasture-derived carbon, counterbalancing the carbon gains in OP biomass. The recovery of topsoil carbon content, suggests that SOC stocks might partly recover during a third plantation cycle. Hence, greater OP sustainability can be achieved if its expansion is oriented toward pasture land.

Download Full-text

Soil nitrogen oxide fluxes from lowland forests converted smallholder rubber and oil palm plantations in Sumatra, Indonesia

10.5194/bg-2016-357 ◽

2016 ◽

Author(s):

Evelyn Hassler ◽

Marife D. Corre ◽

Syahrul Kurniawan ◽

Edzo Veldkamp

Keyword(s):

Land Use ◽

Oil Palm ◽

Large Scale ◽

Fertilizer Application ◽

Forest Conversion ◽

Land Uses ◽

Soil N ◽

Land Use Conversion ◽

Rubber Plantations ◽

No Fluxes

Abstract. Oil palm and rubber plantations cover large areas of former rainforest in Sumatra, Indonesia, supplying the global demand for these crops. Although forest conversion is known to influence soil nitrous oxide (N2O) and nitric oxide (NO) fluxes, measurements from oil palm and rubber plantations are scarce (for N2O) or nonexistent (for NO). Our study aimed to (1) quantify changes in soil-atmosphere fluxes of N oxides with forest conversion to rubber and oil palm plantations, and (2) determine their controlling factors. In Jambi, Sumatra, we selected two landscapes that mainly differed in texture but both on heavily weathered soils: loam and clay Acrisol soils. Within each landscape, we investigated lowland forest, rubber trees interspersed in secondary forest (termed as jungle rubber), both as reference land uses, and smallholder rubber and oil palm plantations, as converted land uses. Each land use had four replicate plots within each landscape. Soil N2O fluxes were measured monthly from December 2012 to December 2013, and soil NO fluxes were measured four times between March and September 2013. In the loam Acrisol landscape, we also conducted weekly to bi-weekly soil N2O flux measurements from July 2014 to July 2015 in a large-scale oil palm plantation with four replicate plots for comparison with smallholder oil palm plantations. Land-use conversion to smallholder plantations had no effect on soil N-oxide fluxes (P = 0.58 to 0.76) due to the generally low soil N availability in the reference land uses that further decreased with land-use conversion. Over one-year measurements, the temporal patterns of soil N-oxide fluxes were influenced by soil mineral N and water contents. Across landscapes, annual soil N2O emissions were controlled by gross nitrification and sand content, which also suggest the influence of soil N and water availability. Soil N2O fluxes (µg N m−2 h−1) were: 7 ± 2 to 14 ± 7 (reference land uses), 6 ± 3 to 9 ± 2 (rubber), 12 ± 3 to 12 ± 6 (smallholder oil palm), and 42 ± 24 (large-scale oil palm). Soil NO fluxes (µg N m−2 h−1) were: −0.6 ± 0.7 to 5.7 ± 5.8 (reference land uses), −1.2 ± 0.5 to −1.0 ± 0.2 (rubber) and −0.2 ± 1.2 to 0.7 ± 0.7 (smallholder oil palm). The low N fertilizer application in smallholder oil palm plantations (commonly 48 to 88 kg N ha−1 yr−1) resulted in N-oxide losses of only 0.2–0.7 % of the applied N. To improve estimate of soil N-oxide fluxes from oil palm plantations in this region, studies should focus on large-scale plantations (which usually have two to four times higher N fertilization rates than smallholders) with frequent measurements following fertilizer application.

Download Full-text

Refined past, current and future greenhouse gas footprints of palm oil production

10.5194/egusphere-egu21-15996 ◽

2021 ◽

Author(s):

Ana Meijide ◽

Cristina de la Rúa ◽

Martin Ehbrecht ◽

Alexander Röll

Keyword(s):

Land Use ◽

Greenhouse Gas ◽

Palm Oil ◽

Oil Palm ◽

Elaeis Guineensis ◽

Ghg Emissions ◽

Oil Production ◽

Plantation Life ◽

Alternative Scenarios ◽

Business As Usual

Oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) is the most important oil crop in the world, with more than 85% of the global production coming from Indonesia and Malaysia. However, knowledge of country-wide past, current and likely future greenhouse gas (GHG) footprints from palm oil production remains largely incomplete. Over the past year, first studies reporting measurements of net ecosystem carbon dioxide (CO2) fluxes in oil palm plantations of different ages and on different soil types became available. Combining the recent CO2 flux estimates with existing measurements on methane and nitrous oxide fluxes allows for a refined quantification of the GHG footprint of palm oil production over the whole plantation life cycle.To derive country-wide GHG emissions from palm oil production for both Indonesia and Malaysia, we applied the refined GHG footprint estimates to oil palm area extents. Therein, we differentiated between mineral and peat soils, second- and first-generation plantations and within the latter category also among previous land-use systems from which conversion to oil palm likely occurred. For deriving the current (2020) proportions for each category, we combined FAO data with existing remotely sensed maps on oil palm extent and tree density as well as peatland and intact forest layers. These area proportions were then applied to available historic (1970 &#8211; 2010) and future (2030 &#8211; 2050) oil palm extent estimates as a business-as-usual scenario (BAU), complemented by alternative scenarios. GHG footprint estimates comprise all GHG emissions from palm oil production, i.e. from land-use change, cultivation, milling and use.Our refined approach estimates the 2020 GHG emissions from palm oil production at 1011 Tg CO2-eq. yr-1 for Indonesia and at 261 Tg CO2-eq. yr-1 for Malaysia. Our results show that while plantations on peatland only represented 17% and 15% of the total plantation area in 2020 for Indonesia and Malaysia, they accounted for 73% and 72% of the total GHG emissions from palm oil production. Emissions in 1980 and 2000 were estimated to be only 1% and 14% of the 2020 palm oil emissions for Indonesia, but already 24% and 96% for Malaysia due to the earlier oil palm expansion. Projected emissions for 2050, assuming further oil palm expansion on suitable land and constant yields from 2020 on, represent 64% of the 2020 value for Indonesia and 97% for Malaysia under a BAU expansion scenario. These lower or constant GHG emissions for future scenarios despite assumed increases in cultivated area are the consequence of lower GHG emissions in second and subsequent rotation cycles. For both countries, the 2050 BAU emissions could be reduced by more than 50% by halting all conversion of peatlands and forests to oil palm from 2020 on, and by more than 75% when additionally restoring all peatlands currently under oil palm to forest until 2050. Closing yield gaps could potentially lead to further emissions savings. &#160;&#160;

Download Full-text

Greenhouse gas emissions from the water–air interface of a grassland river: a case study of the Xilin River

Scientific Reports ◽

10.1038/s41598-021-81658-x ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 11 (1) ◽

Author(s):

Xue Hao ◽

Yu Ruihong ◽

Zhang Zhuangzhuang ◽

Qi Zhen ◽

Lu Xixi ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Carbon Dioxide ◽

Land Use ◽

Nitrous Oxide ◽

Greenhouse Gas Emissions ◽

Greenhouse Gas ◽

Ghg Emissions ◽

Nitrous Oxide Emissions ◽

Gas Emissions ◽

Sand Land ◽

Very High

AbstractGreenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from rivers and lakes have been shown to significantly contribute to global carbon and nitrogen cycling. In spatiotemporal-variable and human-impacted rivers in the grassland region, simultaneous carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide emissions and their relationships under the different land use types are poorly documented. This research estimated greenhouse gas (CO2, CH4, N2O) emissions in the Xilin River of Inner Mongolia of China using direct measurements from 18 field campaigns under seven land use type (such as swamp, sand land, grassland, pond, reservoir, lake, waste water) conducted in 2018. The results showed that CO2 emissions were higher in June and August, mainly affected by pH and DO. Emissions of CH4 and N2O were higher in October, which were influenced by TN and TP. According to global warming potential, CO2 emissions accounted for 63.35% of the three GHG emissions, and CH4 and N2O emissions accounted for 35.98% and 0.66% in the Xilin river, respectively. Under the influence of different degrees of human-impact, the amount of CO2 emissions in the sand land type was very high, however, CH4 emissions and N2O emissions were very high in the artificial pond and the wastewater, respectively. For natural river, the greenhouse gas emissions from the reservoir and sand land were both low. The Xilin river was observed to be a source of carbon dioxide and methane, and the lake was a sink for nitrous oxide.

Download Full-text

Greenhouse gas fluxes from an oil palm plantation on mineral soil in Indonesia undergoing riparian restoration

10.5194/egusphere-egu21-7704 ◽

2021 ◽

Author(s):

Stella White ◽

Ribka Sionita Tarigan ◽

Anak Agung Ketut Aryawan ◽

Edgar Turner ◽

Sarah Luke ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Environmental Impact ◽

Greenhouse Gas ◽

Oil Palm ◽

Forest Tree ◽

Native Forest ◽

Forest Trees ◽

Riparian Restoration ◽

Enrichment Planting ◽

Mineral Soils ◽

Ghg Fluxes

Oil palm (OP) growers are under pressure to reduce their environmental impact. Ecosystem function and biodiversity are at the forefront of the issue, but what effect do changes in management practices have on greenhouse gas (GHG) fluxes from plantations?&#160;The Riparian Ecosystem Restoration in Tropical Agriculture (RERTA) Project is a collaboration between the University of Cambridge and the SMART Research Institute in Riau, Indonesia. This project explores the ecological changes resulting from the restoration of riparian margins between plantations and watercourses. Four management strategies were applied on both sides of a river to create 50m riparian buffers, 400m in length: (1) A control treatment of no restoration, the removal of mature OP and replanting of young OP to the river margin; (2) Little to no agricultural management of mature OP; (3) Clearance of mature OP and enrichment planting with native forest trees; (4) Little or no agricultural management of mature OP and enrichment planting with native forest trees. Here we present a specific objective to investigate the effect of riparian restoration &#8211; and related changes in soil characteristics, structure and vegetation cover &#8211; on fluxes of N2O, CH4 and CO2 from mineral soils.The experimental site began as a mature OP plantation, with monthly background measurements taken between January and April 2019. Palms were felled in April 2019 and monthly sampling was resumed when replanting and restoration began, in October 2019. We measured GHGs using static chambers; 6 in each riparian treatment and 16 in the actual OP plantation, 40 chambers in total. Samples were analysed using GC-FID/&#181;ECD.Background measurements before felling showed high variability, but indicated no difference between the four experimental plots and the rest of the plantation. Fluxes measured following replanting were also highly variable, with no significant differences observed between treatments. N2O fluxes were relatively low before felling as the mature palms were no longer fertilised. Higher emissions were seen in the disturbed immature OP and forest tree treatments following replanting. Though the sites appeared to recover quickly and emission fluxes decreased after a few months, presumably as the soil settled and new vegetation began to grow. CH4 uptake was seen in the immature OP treatment immediately after replanting. In subsequent months no clear trends of CH4 uptake or emission were observed, with the greatest variability generally seen in the forest tree treatment. CH4 emissions increased in October 2020 with the beginning of the rainy season, most notably in mature OP and mature OP with forest tree treatments. Following restoration CO2 emissions were higher in treatments with established plant communities &#8211; mature OP and mature OP with forest trees.These results suggest that riparian restoration had no significant effect on GHG fluxes from mineral soils, and would not alter the overall GHG budget of a plantation. If there is no additional GHG burden and riparian restoration results in enhancing biodiversity and ecosystem services as well as improving water quality, it will be a viable management option to improve the environmental impact of an OP plantation.

Download Full-text

Hotspots of gross emissions from the land use sector: patterns, uncertainties, and leading emission sources for the period 2000–2005 in the tropics

Biogeosciences ◽

10.5194/bg-13-4253-2016 ◽

2016 ◽

Vol 13 (14) ◽

pp. 4253-4269 ◽

Cited By ~ 16

Author(s):

Rosa Maria Roman-Cuesta ◽

Mariana C. Rufino ◽

Martin Herold ◽

Klaus Butterbach-Bahl ◽

Todd S. Rosenstock ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Land Use ◽

National Policy ◽

Ghg Emissions ◽

Emission Sources ◽

Intergovernmental Panel ◽

Wood Harvesting ◽

Global Mean Temperature ◽

Agricultural Emissions ◽

Mitigation Action ◽

The Tropics

Abstract. According to the latest report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), emissions must be cut by 41–72 % below 2010 levels by 2050 for a likely chance of containing the global mean temperature increase to 2 °C. The AFOLU sector (Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use) contributes roughly a quarter ( ∼  10–12 Pg CO2e yr−1) of the net anthropogenic GHG emissions mainly from deforestation, fire, wood harvesting, and agricultural emissions including croplands, paddy rice, and livestock. In spite of the importance of this sector, it is unclear where the regions with hotspots of AFOLU emissions are and how uncertain these emissions are. Here we present a novel, spatially comparable dataset containing annual mean estimates of gross AFOLU emissions (CO2, CH4, N2O), associated uncertainties, and leading emission sources, in a spatially disaggregated manner (0.5°) for the tropics for the period 2000–2005. Our data highlight the following: (i) the existence of AFOLU emissions hotspots on all continents, with particular importance of evergreen rainforest deforestation in Central and South America, fire in dry forests in Africa, and both peatland emissions and agriculture in Asia; (ii) a predominant contribution of forests and CO2 to the total AFOLU emissions (69 %) and to their uncertainties (98 %); (iii) higher gross fluxes from forests, which coincide with higher uncertainties, making agricultural hotspots appealing for effective mitigation action; and (iv) a lower contribution of non-CO2 agricultural emissions to the total gross emissions (ca. 25 %), with livestock (15.5 %) and rice (7 %) leading the emissions. Gross AFOLU tropical emissions of 8.0 (5.5–12.2) were in the range of other databases (8.4 and 8.0 Pg CO2e yr−1 in FAOSTAT and the Emissions Database for Global Atmospheric Research (EDGAR) respectively), but we offer a spatially detailed benchmark for monitoring progress in reducing emissions from the land sector in the tropics. The location of the AFOLU hotspots of emissions and data on their associated uncertainties will assist national policy makers, investors, and other decision-makers who seek to understand the mitigation potential of the AFOLU sector.

Download Full-text

Assessment on the rates and potentials of soil organic carbon sequestration in agricultural lands in Japan using a process-based model and spatially explicit land-use change inventories – Part 1: Historical trend and validation based on nation-wide soil monitoring

Biogeosciences ◽

10.5194/bg-11-4429-2014 ◽

2014 ◽

Vol 11 (16) ◽

pp. 4429-4442 ◽

Cited By ~ 15

Author(s):

Y. Yagasaki ◽

Y. Shirato

Keyword(s):

Land Use ◽

Organic Carbon ◽

Land Use Change ◽

Paddy Fields ◽

Spatially Explicit ◽

Crop Fields ◽

Upland Crop ◽

Soc Stock ◽

Stock Change ◽

Soc Stocks

Abstract. In order to estimate a country-scale soil organic carbon (SOC) stock change in agricultural lands in Japan, while taking into account the effect of land-use changes, climate, different agricultural activities and the nature of soils, a spatially explicit model simulation system was developed using Rothamsted Carbon Model (RothC) with an integration of spatial and temporal inventories. Simulation was run from 1970 to 2008 with historical inventories. Simulated SOC stock was compared with observations in a nation-wide stationary monitoring program conducted during 1979–1998. Historical land-use change, characterized by a large decline in the area of paddy fields as well as a small but continuous decline in the area of orchards, occurred along with a relatively large increase in upland crop fields, unmanaged grasslands, and settlements (i.e. conversion of agricultural fields due to urbanization or abandoning). Results of the simulation on SOC stock change under varying land-use change indicated that land-use conversion from agricultural fields to settlements or other lands, as well as that from paddy fields to croplands have likely been an increasing source of CO2 emission, due to the reduction of organic carbon input to soils and the enhancement of SOC decomposition through transition of soil environment from anaerobic to aerobic conditions. The area-weighted mean concentrations of the simulated SOC stocks calculated for major soil groups under paddy fields and upland crop fields were comparable to those observed in the monitoring. Whereas in orchards, the simulated SOC stocks were underestimated. As the results of simulation indicated that SOC stock change under managed grasslands and settlements has been likely a major sink and source of CO2 emission at country-scale, respectively, validation of SOC stock change under these land-use types, which could not have been accomplished due to limited availability or a lack of measurement, remains a forthcoming challenge.

Download Full-text

Local Perspectives on Ecosystem Service Trade-Offs in a Forest Frontier Landscape in Myanmar

Land ◽

10.3390/land8030045 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 8 (3) ◽

pp. 45 ◽

Cited By ~ 10

Author(s):

Melanie Feurer ◽

Andreas Heinimann ◽

Flurina Schneider ◽

Christine Jurt ◽

Win Myint ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Land Use ◽

Oil Palm ◽

Land Use Changes ◽

Forest Products ◽

Well Being ◽

Rubber Plantations ◽

Trade Offs ◽

Land User ◽

The Impact ◽

Local Perspectives

Extensive land use changes in forest frontier landscapes are leading to trade-offs in the supply of ecosystem services (ES) with, in many cases, as yet unknown effects on human well-being. In the Tanintharyi Region of Myanmar, a forest frontier landscape facing oil palm and rubber expansion, little is known about local perspectives on ES and the direct impact of trade-offs from land use change. This study assessed the trade-offs experienced with respect to 10 locally important ES from land user perspectives using social valuation techniques. The results show that while intact forests provide the most highly valued ES bundle, the conversion to rubber plantations entails fewer negative trade-offs than that to oil palm. Rubber plantations offer income, fuelwood, a good microclimate, and even new cultural identities. By contrast, oil palm concessions have caused environmental pollution, and, most decisively, have restricted local people’s access to the respective lands. The ES water flow regulation is seen as the most critical if more forest is converted; other ES, such as non-timber forest products, can be more easily substituted. We conclude that, from local perspectives, the impact of ES trade-offs highly depends on access to land and opportunities to adapt to change.

Download Full-text

Effects of oil palm plantations on anuran diversity in the eastern Amazon

Animal Biology ◽

10.1163/15707563-00002481 ◽

2015 ◽

Vol 65 (3-4) ◽

pp. 321-335 ◽

Cited By ~ 14

Author(s):

Fabricio S. Correa ◽

Leandro Juen ◽

Lenise C. Rodrigues ◽

Heriberto F. Silva-Filho ◽

Maria C. Santos-Costa

Keyword(s):

Land Use ◽

Species Richness ◽

Oil Palm ◽

Soil Conditions ◽

Total Abundance ◽

Anuran Species ◽

Forested Areas ◽

Acoustic Surveys ◽

Negative Impacts ◽

The Tropics

The extent of land use for oil palm plantations has grown considerably in the tropics due to climate, appropriate soil conditions for cultivation and its profitability. However, oil palm plantations may endanger biodiversity through reduction and fragmentation of forest areas. Herein we analyzed the effects on anuran species richness, composition and total abundance in oil palm plantations and surrounding forests in eastern Amazon. We installed seven plots in oil palm plantations and seven plots in surrounding forests, which we surveyed for the presence of anurans through active visual and acoustic surveys during periods of high and low rainfall levels. Anuran assemblages found in forests and oil palm plantations differed in species richness and composition, with a loss of 54% of species in oil palm plantations. No difference was observed in total abundance of anurans between both environments. While conversion of forests to oil palm plantations may result in less negative impacts on anuran diversity than other types of monocultures, such loss is nevertheless high, making the maintenance of relatively greater forested areas around oil palm plantations necessary in order to conserve anuran diversity.

Download Full-text

Greenhouse gas emissions and urban form: Linking households’ socio-economic status with housing and transportation choices

Environment and Planning B Urban Analytics and City Science ◽

10.1177/0265813516656862 ◽

2016 ◽

Vol 44 (5) ◽

pp. 964-985

Author(s):

François Des Rosiers ◽

Marius Thériault ◽

Gjin Biba ◽

Marie-Hélène Vandersmissen

Keyword(s):

Land Use ◽

Greenhouse Gas ◽

Urban Form ◽

Census Data ◽

Ghg Emissions ◽

Grid Cell ◽

Structural Equations ◽

City Centre ◽

Quebec City ◽

Population Census

The main purpose of this research is to provide new insights for reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions linked to transportation, furthering our knowledge on linkages between urban form and economic constraints, travel behaviour, and ability-to-pay of households based on residential choices and property ownership statuses. With Quebec City (Canada) as a case study, it combines an origin-destination (OD) survey, population census data and land use records for 2006 and rests on a series of structural equations models developed at the grid cell level (3,892 cells), which allows for testing for both direct and indirect effects of urban form, accessibility and socio-economic attributes on GHG emissions, households’ transportation and housing financial burdens and motorization rate. As expected, findings suggest that GHG emissions increase with higher incomes (and education), but mainly for homeowners. Tenants displaying a high expenditure-to-income ratio for housing tend to stay close to the city centre (and jobs), thereby minimizing their overall expenditures for transportation while lowering GHG emissions. Potential accessibility by car promotes urban sprawl, thereby contributing to increased GHG emissions. In contrast, increasing residential density and land use mix while providing a better walking access to jobs and local shops tends to favour active transportation, leading to a significant reduction in GHG emissions.

Download Full-text