Sleep bolsters schematically incongruent memories

Our ability to recall memories is improved when sleep follows learning, suggesting that sleep facilitates memory consolidation. A number of factors are thought to influence the impact of sleep on newly learned information, such as whether or not we rehearse that information (e.g. via restudy or retrieval practice), or the extent to which the information is consistent with our pre-existing schematic knowledge. In this pre-registered, online study, we examined the effects of both rehearsal and schematic congruency on overnight consolidation. Participants learned noun-colour pairings (e.g. elephant-red) and rated each pairing as plausible or implausible before completing a baseline memory assessment. Afterwards, participants engaged in a period of restudy or retrieval practice for the pairings, and then entered a 12 h retention interval of overnight sleep or daytime wakefulness. Follow-up assessments were completed immediately after sleep or wake, and again 24 h after learning. Our data indicated that overnight consolidation was amplified for restudied relative to retested noun-colour pairings, but only when sleep occurred soon after learning. Furthermore, whereas plausible (i.e. schematically congruent) pairings were generally better remembered than implausible (i.e. schematically incongruent) pairings, sleep (vs wake) reduced the retention advantage for plausible (vs implausible) information. This finding challenges the notion that schema-conformant memories are preferentially strengthened during post-learning sleep.

Learning to perform role-filler binding with schematic knowledge

Through specific experiences, humans learn the relationships that underlie the structure of events in the world. Schema theory suggests that we organize this information in mental frameworks called “schemata,” which represent our knowledge of the structure of the world. Generalizing knowledge of structural relationships to new situations requires role-filler binding, the ability to associate specific “fillers” with abstract “roles.” For instance, when we hear the sentence Alice ordered a tea from Bob, the role-filler bindings customer:Alice, drink:tea and barista:Bob allow us to understand and make inferences about the sentence. We can perform these bindings for arbitrary fillers—we understand this sentence even if we have never heard the names Alice, tea, or Bob before. In this work, we define a model as capable of performing role-filler binding if it can recall arbitrary fillers corresponding to a specified role, even when these pairings violate correlations seen during training. Previous work found that models can learn this ability when explicitly told what the roles and fillers are, or when given fillers seen during training. We show that networks with external memory learn to bind roles to arbitrary fillers, without explicitly labeled role-filler pairs. We further show that they can perform these bindings on role-filler pairs that violate correlations seen during training, while retaining knowledge of training correlations. We apply analyses inspired by neural decoding to interpret what the networks have learned.

Perception of English Learning Based on Local Wisdom for Junior High School Students in Desa Kolam Deli Serdang District North Sumatera Indonesia

Integrating local wisdom in the context of English learning is very important regarding to the culture maintenance. Learning English as a foreign language has two kinds of motivation namely instrumental and integrative. This study applied qualitative design by administrating the questionnaires to two teachers and 20 students. The results showed that the teachers had not integrated the local wisdom optimally and tended to apply the systemic knowledge in English teaching rather than the schematic knowledge. However, both of them showed their positive responses in relation to integrate the local wisdom in the teaching materials. Furthermore, most students showed their positive responses regarding to integrate local wisdom into English materials in order to maintain and protect their local wisdom and tradition.

To Teach and Delight: The Varieties of Learning From Fiction

It is well known that people who read fiction have many reasons for doing so. But perhaps one of the most understudied reasons people have for reading fiction is their belief that reading will result in their acquisition of certain forms of knowledge or skill. Such expectations have long been fostered by literary theorists, critics, authors, and readers who have asserted that reading may indeed be among the best ways to learn particular forms of knowledge. Modern psychological research has borne out many of these claims. For example, readers of fiction learn cognitive skills such as mentalizing or theory of mind. Reading fiction is also associated with greater empathic skills, especially among avid or lifelong readers. For readers who are emotionally transported into the fictional world they are reading about, powerful emotional truths are often discovered that may subsequently help readers build, or change, their identities. Fiction readers acquire factual information about places or people they may not have any other access to. But reading fiction also presents opportunities to acquire inaccurate factual information that may diminish access to previously learned accurate information. If readers are provided with inaccurate information that is encoded, they have opportunities to make faulty inferences, whose invalidity the reader is often incapable of detecting. Readers of fiction use schematic world knowledge to navigate fictional texts. But if the border between fiction and reality becomes blurred, as might be the case of avid readers of fiction, there is a risk that they may export schematic knowledge from the world of fiction to the everyday world, where it may not be applicable. These and other findings suggest that the varieties of learning from fiction form a complex, nuanced pattern deserving of greater attention by researchers.

Neural Systems for Memory-based Value Judgment and Decision-making

Real-life choices often require that we draw inferences about the value of options based on structured, schematic knowledge about their utility for our current goals. Other times, value information may be retrieved directly from a specific prior experience with an option. In an fMRI experiment, we investigated the neural systems involved in retrieving and assessing information from different memory sources to support value-based choice. Participants completed a task in which items could be conferred positive or negative value based on schematic associations (i.e., schema value) or learned directly from experience via deterministic feedback (i.e., experienced value). We found that ventromedial pFC (vmPFC) activity correlated with the influence of both experience- and schema-based values on participants' decisions. Connectivity between the vmPFC and middle temporal cortex also tracked the inferred value of items based on schematic associations on the first presentation of ingredients, before any feedback. In contrast, the striatum responded to participants' willingness to bet on ingredients as a function of the unsigned strength of their memory for those options' values. These results argue that the striatum and vmPFC play distinct roles in memory-based value judgment and decision-making. Specifically, the vmPFC assesses the value of options based on information inferred from schematic knowledge and retrieved from prior direct experience, whereas the striatum controls a decision to act on options based on memory strength.

Role of Fantasy in Intellectual Development of Children

This paper discusses the concept of fantasy. There is much in the word of fiction today so that the number of writers on imagination is increasing. After people have come to realize that romance is serving as much as a sea in the intellectual development of children, most of them have started to encourage their children to like more reading fantasy books. Some parents have even made it a great deal by deciding to build a small home library of fantasy books for children.The paper’s purpose is to discuss the role of fantasy literature in children’s intellectual development by including different forms of fantasy and its various advantages. The latter include creativity, entertainment, imagination and language skills improvement, the schematic knowledge, enjoyment, strategies applied for problem-solving, knowing the do’s and don’ts of the society, etc. Some Critics have made assertions on children’s ways of learning. This paper incorporates some of the claims and discusses them with some excerpts of illustrative stories related to fantasy.Enhanced by the fact that fantasy is the roadmap to the child thinking ability development, the paper will finally show why parents should motivate their children to get interested in fiction, which has a lot to do with children’s learning process.

Neural systems for memory-based value judgment and decision-making

Real life choices often require that we draw inferences about the value of options based on structured, schematic knowledge about their utility for our current goals. Other times, value information may be retrieved directly from a specific prior experience with an option. In a functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) experiment, we investigated the neural systems involved in retrieving and assessing information from different memory sources to support value-based choice. Participants completed a task in which items could be conferred positive or negative value based on schematic associations (i.e. schema value), or learned directly from experience via deterministic feedback (i.e. experienced value). We found that ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) activity correlated with the influence of both experience- and schema-based values on participants’ decisions. Connectivity between vmPFC and middle temporal cortex also tracked the inferred value of items based on schematic associations on the first presentation of ingredients, prior to any feedback. In contrast, the striatum responded to participants’ willingness to bet on ingredients as a function of the unsigned strength of their memory for those options’ values. These results argue that striatum and vmPFC play distinct roles in memory-based value judgment and decision-making. Specifically, the vmPFC assesses the value of options based on information inferred from schematic knowledge and retrieved from prior direct experience, while the striatum controls a decision to act on options based on memory strength.

Neural dynamics of accumulating and updating linguistic knowledge structures

Knowledge is acquired by generalization and integration across learning experiences, which can then be applied to future instances. This study provides novel insights into how linguistic associative knowledge is acquired by systematically tracking schematic knowledge formation while participants were learning an abstract artificial language organized by higher-order associative regularity. During learning, we found activity in the left inferior frontal gyrus in response to knowledge updating during feedback presentation, as well as in response to available accumulated knowledge during retrieval. A complementary signal was found in the caudate nucleus, where activity correlated with the availability of recently acquired knowledge during retrieval, suggesting it initially supports the retrieval of knowledge. Furthermore, we find that activity in a set of regions, including the medial prefrontal cortex and hippocampus, scaled with accumulated knowledge during feedback presentation, which might be indicative of increased generalization of features of the hierarchical knowledge structure. Together, these results provide a mechanistic insight into how linguistic associative knowledge is acquired by generalization across repeated learning experiences.