Officership in the Salvation Army : a Case Study in Clericalisation

<p>This thesis attempts an historical review and analysis of Salvation Army ministry in terms of the tension between function and status, between the view that members of the church differ only in that they have distinct roles, and the tradition that some enjoy a particular status, some ontological character, by virtue of their ordination to one of those roles in particular. This dichotomy developed early in the life of the Church and can be traced throughout its history. Jesus and his community appear to have valued equality in contrast to the priestly hierarchies of received religion. There were varieties of function within the early Christian community, but perhaps not at first of status. Over the first two or three centuries the Church developed such distinctions, between those "ordained" to "orders" and the "laity", as it accommodated to Roman society and to traditional religious expectations, and developed structures to defend its doctrinal integrity. While most renewal movements in the Church from Montanism onwards have involved a degree of lay reaction against this institutionalisation, clericalism has always regained the ascendancy. The Christian Mission, originating in 1865 and becoming The Salvation Army in 1878, began as a "lay" movement and was not intended to become a "Church". By the death of its Founder in 1912 however it had in practice become a denominational church in all but name and its officers had in effect become clergy. At the same time it continued to maintain the theory that it was not a church. The first three chapters explore this development, and the ambiguity that this uncertainty built into its understanding of ministry. In the Army's second century it began to become more theologically aware and the tension between the incompatible poles of its self-understanding led to prolonged debate. This debate is followed firstly through published articles and correspondence mainly from the period 1960-2000, and then in the official statements produced by the organisation. Separate chapters attend to the way in which this polarity was expressed in discussion of the roles of women and of auxiliary officers and soldiers of the Army. The culmination of this period of exploration came with the setting up of an International Commission on Officership and subsequent adjustments to the Army's regulations. The conclusion argued however that these changes have not addressed the underlying tensions in the movement's ecclesiology, between the "radical reformation" roots of its theology and the hierarchical shape of its ecclesiology, and attempts to explore future possibilities for the Army's theology of ministry. In retrospect it may be seen that The Salvation Army recapitulates in microcosm the historical and sociological processes of the Church as a whole, its history illustrating the way in which pragmatic measures become entrenched dogma, while charismatic revivals and alternative communities are reabsorbed into the structures of power and control.</p>

Officership in the Salvation Army : a Case Study in Clericalisation

<p>This thesis attempts an historical review and analysis of Salvation Army ministry in terms of the tension between function and status, between the view that members of the church differ only in that they have distinct roles, and the tradition that some enjoy a particular status, some ontological character, by virtue of their ordination to one of those roles in particular. This dichotomy developed early in the life of the Church and can be traced throughout its history. Jesus and his community appear to have valued equality in contrast to the priestly hierarchies of received religion. There were varieties of function within the early Christian community, but perhaps not at first of status. Over the first two or three centuries the Church developed such distinctions, between those "ordained" to "orders" and the "laity", as it accommodated to Roman society and to traditional religious expectations, and developed structures to defend its doctrinal integrity. While most renewal movements in the Church from Montanism onwards have involved a degree of lay reaction against this institutionalisation, clericalism has always regained the ascendancy. The Christian Mission, originating in 1865 and becoming The Salvation Army in 1878, began as a "lay" movement and was not intended to become a "Church". By the death of its Founder in 1912 however it had in practice become a denominational church in all but name and its officers had in effect become clergy. At the same time it continued to maintain the theory that it was not a church. The first three chapters explore this development, and the ambiguity that this uncertainty built into its understanding of ministry. In the Army's second century it began to become more theologically aware and the tension between the incompatible poles of its self-understanding led to prolonged debate. This debate is followed firstly through published articles and correspondence mainly from the period 1960-2000, and then in the official statements produced by the organisation. Separate chapters attend to the way in which this polarity was expressed in discussion of the roles of women and of auxiliary officers and soldiers of the Army. The culmination of this period of exploration came with the setting up of an International Commission on Officership and subsequent adjustments to the Army's regulations. The conclusion argued however that these changes have not addressed the underlying tensions in the movement's ecclesiology, between the "radical reformation" roots of its theology and the hierarchical shape of its ecclesiology, and attempts to explore future possibilities for the Army's theology of ministry. In retrospect it may be seen that The Salvation Army recapitulates in microcosm the historical and sociological processes of the Church as a whole, its history illustrating the way in which pragmatic measures become entrenched dogma, while charismatic revivals and alternative communities are reabsorbed into the structures of power and control.</p>

Religious Vitality in Victorian London

This innovative book challenges many of the widely held assumptions about the place of religion in London, the world’s first great industrial and commercial metropolis. Against the background of a ‘thick description’ of the complexities of Victorian London it explores the religiosity of Londoners as expressed through the dynamic renewal of traditional faith communities, including Judaism and the historic churches, as well as fresh expressions of religion, including the Salvation Army, Mormons, spiritualism, and the occult. It shows how laypeople, especially the rich and women were mobilized in the service of their faith, and their fellow citizens. Drawing on research in social, economic, oral, cultural, and women’s history William Jacob argues that religious motivations lay behind concerns that subsequently preoccupied people in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. These include the changing place of women in society, an active concern for social justice, the sexual exploitation of women and children, provision of education for all classes and all ages. By examining religion broadly, in its social and cultural context, looking beyond conventional approaches to religious history Religious Vitality in Victorian London illustrates the broader significance of religion in society influencing even the expression of secularism.

New Religious Groups

Victorian London proved fertile soil for new religious groups. In the context of political, economic, and social unrest and the biblicism of the Evangelical revival and Romanticism, Christian millenarian groups seeking a perfected society emerged, or were transplanted from the United States. American revivalist and holiness movements inspired the Salvation Army. Small radical secularist, positivist, and ethical groups, while rejecting Christianity, adopted religious models for their activities. Some members of the intelligentsia adopted agnosticism or materialism. None of these groups offered a popular alternative to Christianity or Judaism or attracted significant numbers of adherents. Nor were they able to sustain themselves much beyond their charismatic founders. Scientific and technological discoveries during the period aroused interest in the possibility of other unseen dimensions leading to the great popularity of spiritualism, and, influenced by growing awareness of Eastern religions, to the emergence of Theosophy and Occultism.

At home: Field education during lockdown

Field education during the 2020 Aotearoa New Zealand Covid-19 lockdown was a new experience for social work educators and students alike. This case study captures the experience of one social work student during this time while on placement at the Salvation Army. Included in the account are the perspectives of the Community Ministries Manager, the placement supervisor and the placement field coordinator. Due to the Covid-19 restrictions, the student undertook the placement while at home. A pandemic can offer students opportunities to learn about managing difficult situations. Reflection on the experience provided insight into what helped and what could have been done differently. Regular debriefing, supervision and a post- crisis debrief were all important elements that aided the learning and supported the wellbeing of the student.

Outpatient Clinic of Russian Red Cross in Berlin in 1920s —1930s

The documents of the League of Nations archive concerning the history of a unique emigrant institution — the Russian Ambulatory in Berlin are introduced into scientific circulation in the article. It is reported that for at least 17 years (since 1920), the clinic had pro-vided free assistance to the poor. The annual reports and correspondence of the clinic make it possible not only to assess the scale of the activities of the philanthropists of Russian Berlin and their humanitarian significance, but also to analyze information about the social and demographic processes in the emigrant community in the 1920s—1930s. It is noted that from 1920 to 1934 the clinic received 171,955 patients (more than one and a half thousand people a year, of all ages and nationalities). Information is given that doctors treated a wide range of diseases: cardiovascular, nervous, venereal, respiratory and digestive system, urogenital system, eye and ear, the consequences of injuries and trauma. It has been established that the outpatient clinic distributed free medicines, food, and basic necessities since the early 1930s and provided lunches and places in the Salvation Army dormitory for the homeless. The statistics of the clinic are presented with data on the ethnic composition of Russian Berlin (the most representative of the known ones), the aging of emigration in Germany, and the low birth rate in the 1930s and the spread of poverty associated with the Great Depression.

“Not My Will But Yours be Done”: The Use of the Mercy Seat in Theodramatic Perspective

The “Mercy Seat” performs an important function within Salvation Army worship. It symbolizes the central theological tenet of the immediacy of grace to all. Historically, its function was intended for use by those intending to “receive Christ” for the first time. Over time, its use has broadened to include other intentions whilst simultaneously diminishing in the frequency of its use. This article suggests that when viewed from a theodramatic perspective, the act of praying at the Mercy Seat becomes a contemporary, and improvised, performance of Christ's Gethsemane prayer, “Not my will, but yours be done” (Luke 22:42). The broadening of the understanding of this act to become a deliberately repeated and embodied performance of Jesus’ prayer may help to overcome the loss of use of this symbol. Drawing upon the work of Adrienne von Speyr and Kevin Vanhoozer, this article will demonstrate how the prayer of Christ in Gethsemane is embodied through contemporary, improvised performance of his prayer at the Mercy Seat by Salvationists and those new to the faith alike.

Rondas interprofesionales de heridas antes y después de Best Practice Spotlight Organization (BPSO)

Introducción. El modelo de cuidado a pacientes en el Salvation Army Toronto Grace Health Centre Hospital está basado en los principios de cuidado centrado en el paciente y la familia como parte integral del equipo interprofesional. Dentro de este marco se diseñan y se implementan diferentes programas para que se mejore constantemente y se mantenga un buen nivel de cuidados y calidad de vida de los pacientes, dentro de las limitaciones que conlleva el estar hospitalizado, esto después de convertirse en Best Practice Spotlight. Objetivo. Presentar la experiencia de las rondas interprofesionales de heridas antes y después de Best Practice Spotlight. Síntesis. Antes de ser BPSO los documentos de pólizas y procedimientos que guiaban las prácticas alrededor de úlceras o heridas por presión, en el hospital se utilizaban como referencia las guías basadas en las evidencias de la Asociación de Enfermeras de Ontario (RNAO). Sin embargo, no estaba formalizada la ejecución o aplicación de estas prácticas al punto de cuidado directo al paciente. En este artículo se presenta la transición y los aspectos relevantes para que sea una realidad el cuidado centrado en el paciente y la familia como parte del equipo interprofesional en el componente de las rondas interprofesionales de heridas. Conclusiones. El éxito de la implementación efectiva de las guías ha sido el programa BPSO, que se ha convertido en una identidad colectiva de organizaciones que trabajan en pro de los mejores resultados en las organizaciones de salud en instituciones nacionales e internacionales.

Operationalising ethnicity in accountability: insights from an ethnic group within the Salvation Army

PurposeThis paper explores how ethnicity is implicated in an etic–emic understanding through day-to-day practices and how such practices meet external accountability demands. Addressing the broader question of how ethnicity presents in an accounting situation, it examines the mundane level responses to those accountability demands manifesting an operationalisation of the ethnicity of the people who make those responses.Design/methodology/approachThe study followed ethnomethodology principles whereby one of the researchers acted both as an active member and as a researcher within a Salvation Army congregation in Manchester (UK), while the others acted as post-fieldwork reflectors.FindingsThe conceivers and guardians of an accountability system relating to the Zimbabwean-Mancunian Salvationist congregation see account giving practices as they appear (etic), not as they are thought and interiorised (emic). An etic–emic misunderstanding on both sides occurs in the situation of a practice variation in a formal accountability system. This is due to the collision of one ethnic group's emics with the emics of conceivers. Such day-to-day practices are thus shaped by ethnic orientations of the participants who operationalise the meeting of accountability demands. Hence, while ethnicity is operationalised in emic terms, accounting is seen as an etic construct. Possible variations between etic requirements and emic practices can realise this operationalisation.Research limitations/implicationsThe authors’ findings were based on one ethnic group's emic construction of accountability. Further research may extend this to multi-ethnic settings with multiple etic/emic combinations.Originality/valueThis study contributed to the debate on both epistemological and methodological issues in accountability. As it is ill-defined or neglected in the literature, the authors offer a working conceptualisation of ethnicity – an operating cultural unit being implicated in both accounting and accountability.