A systematic review of post-release programs for women exiting prison with substance-use disorders: assessing current programs and weighing the evidence

Background The rising rates of women in prison is a serious public health issue. Unlike men, women in prison are characterised by significant histories of trauma, poor mental health, and high rates of substance use disorders (SUDs). Recidivism rates of women have also increased exponentially in the last decade, with substance related offences being the most imprisoned offence worldwide. There is a lack of evidence of the effectiveness of post-release programs for women. The aim of this systematic review is to synthesise and evaluate the evidence on post-release programs for women exiting prison with SUDs. Methods We searched eight scientific databases for empirical original research published in English with no date limitation. Studies with an objective to reduce recidivism for adult women (⩾18 years) with a SUD were included. Study quality was assessed using the revised Cochrane Risk of Bias tool for randomized trials (RoB2) and the Risk of Bias in Non-randomized Studies - of Interventions (ROBINS-I) tools. Results Of the 1493 articles, twelve (n = 3799 women) met the inclusion criteria. Recidivism was significantly reduced in five (42%) programs and substance-use was significantly reduced in one (8.3%) program. Common attributes among programs that reduced recidivism were: transitional, gender-responsive programs; provision of individualised support; providing substance-related therapy, mental health and trauma treatment services. Methodological and reporting biases were common, which impacted our ability to synthesize results further. Recidivism was inconsistently measured across studies further impacting the ability to compare results across studies. Conclusions Recidivism is a problematic measure of program efficacy because it is inconsistently measured and deficit-focused, unrecognising of women’s gains in the post-release period despite lack of tailored programs and significant health and social disadvantages. The current evidence suggests that women benefit from continuity of care from prison to the community, which incorporated gender-responsive programming and individualised case management that targeted co-morbid mental health and SUDs. Future program design should incorporate these attributes of successful programs identified in this review to better address the unique challenges that women with SUDs face when they transition back into the community.

Women Decision-Making and Responsibility-Taking of Criminal Lifestyle: The Israeli Case

This study aims to investigate patterns of decision-making and responsibility-taking as opposed to the compulsion process selection of a criminal lifestyle among women in prison. A life story approach and semi-structured interviews sampling 30 Israeli women in prison during their first imprisonment were used. Using a mixed-method, results revealed that most of the participants claimed full or partial self-responsibility for having engaged in a criminal lifestyle or for the offense of which they had been convicted. This figure was consistent when the participants were divided by age of first offense or a history of abuse. The results support the need for an integrated approach explaining women’s criminal paths, including gender-specific as well as gender-neutral factors. The conclusion is that responsibility-taking for a criminal act should be one of the factors in intervention programs for women with delinquent behavior, regardless of whether there is a history of victimization or not.

Bereavement behind bars: Grief support groups with and without therapy dogs for incarcerated females

Grief is a universal experience; however not everyone experiences grief and loss in the same way. People who are incarcerated are often informed of losses via phone, are unable to attend funeral services or participate in supportive rituals, and can have difficulty expressing feelings in a place where showing emotion can be dangerous. Being unable to obtain support and process grief and loss may contribute to impaired functioning. In this study of bereavement support for women in prison, incarcerated women with recent or unresolved losses (n=32) were randomly assigned to grief support groups with therapy dogs (animal-assisted, AA) or without therapy dogs (non-AA). Pre- and post-test measures of bereavement symptoms and prolonged grief disorder (PGD) were obtained. This study shows that AA groups had more significant decreases in symptoms, lower rates of post-group diagnostic criteria for PGD and higher rates of perceived support/benefit from the groups.

The needs and experiences of mothers while in prison and post-release: a rapid review and thematic synthesis

Background Women in prison are a vulnerable group, often with a history of abuse, out-of-home care, mental health problems and unemployment. Many are mothers when they become involved in the criminal justice system and their gender and parenting related needs are often not considered. The aim of this rapid review was to thematically synthesize the existing research on the needs and experiences of mothers while in, and following release from, prison in Australia. Methods We conducted a rapid systematic search of electronic databases, search engines, the websites of key agencies, and contacted key agencies and researchers. Results Twenty-two publications from 12 studies met the inclusion criteria and were thematically synthesized in relation to the mothers, their children, family and community, and systems and services which mothers had contact with. We found that mothers in prison have a history of disadvantage which is perpetuated by the trauma of imprisonment. Release from prison is a particularly challenging time for mothers. In relation to their children, the included studies showed that the imprisonment of mothers impacts their maternal identity and role and disrupts the mother-child relationship. Specific strategies are needed to maintain the mother-child relationship, and to ensure the needs and rights of the child are met. In relation to family and community, we found that although family and social support is an important need of women in prison, such support may not be available. Moreover, the stigma associated with having been in prison is a significant barrier to transitions into the community, including finding employment and housing. In relation to systems and services, although limited services exist to support women in prison and on release, these often do not consider the parenting role. Evaluations of parenting programs in prison found them to be acceptable and beneficial to participants but barriers to access limit the number of women who can participate. Conclusion Mothers have gender- and parenting-specific needs which should be considered in planning for corrective services in Australia. Any service redesign must place the woman and her children at the centre of the service.

Playing with the Discursive: a Feminist Post-Structural Exploration of the Words 'Criminal Woman'

<p>In this thesis I examine the discursive subject of ‘criminal woman’ to uncover possible ‘gaps’ and ‘silences’ on the discursive ground on which ‘she’ stands. To do this I will apply a feminist post-structural reading, interpretation, and analysis to literature, and the experiences of two ‘women’ who have previously been imprisoned in Aotearoa/New Zealand prisons. This thesis begins with a description of myself, and my position at the start of my research journey. During this phase of my writing I will introduce the central theoretical constructs that will appear throughout my thesis, those of power, knowledge, power/knowledge, discourse, and subjectivity. I will also introduce here the ideas of Michel Foucault, and how these ideas have been developed in feminist post-structural theorising. I will follow my theoretical positioning with three extensive literature reviews, the first being criminological literature, the second penological literature, and the third the intersection of these two forms of literature, or that of the experiences of ‘women’ in prison. Through the literature I will show how the discursive subject called ‘criminal woman’ is a construct, which applies ‘gendered’ dualistic extremes to position the ‘criminal woman’ as either too ‘feminine’ or not ‘feminine’ at all. Subsequently, penological practices tend to ‘author’ the ‘criminal woman’ into these dualistic positions. In addition, feminist standpoint literature on criminology seems to offer only two positions to the ‘criminal woman’ that of being a ‘victim’, or that being a ‘mother’. This is further shown in the literature of intersections where the ‘criminal woman’ offers no resistance to penological practices but becomes a ‘victim’ to these practices, or succumbs to these practices in order to return home to her children. Following the literature reviews I will introduce my own research which involved a series of interviews with two ‘women’ who recently had an experience of confinement in Aotearoa/New Zealand prisons. In my methodology, I will discuss the assumptions I have carried into my research and the methods I used to interview Rene and Sophia. Through analysing the experiences of Rene and Sophia I will show how penological practices attempted to rewrite Rene and Sophia into the position of ‘criminal women’. However, I also show how Rene and Sophia resisted this authoring after prison through the constitutive positions of their ‘selves’ that they introduced in the ‘words’ spoken in the interviews. I conclude that Rene and Sophia did not fit within the defined and confined space of the discursive ‘criminal woman’, and what penological practices attempted to do was to “strip” (Rene) or “crush” (Sophia) into this constitutive position. I argue that the discursive position of ‘criminal woman’ does not define Rene or Sophia, and that a discursive violence occurs when research or theory attempts to define them as such. I conclude by looking back over my journey to show how my research does not stand in the domains of criminology or penology; that it stands outside of these knowledges through the theoretical positioning it uses. I look at what happens when ‘we’ as researchers, and readers of academic texts, use a theoretical knowledge to build our own understanding of the ‘criminal woman’ concluding that a need exists for more feminist post-structural reading and research. A type of research that attempts to question and disrupt the knowledges that create, recreate and surround the subject called ‘criminal woman’.</p>

The Children of Women in Prison

<p>The central focus of this thesis is on children whose mothers are sent to prison. Both the mothers and their children are vulnerable populations; they are likely to have experienced family violence, abuse, drug and alcohol misuse, chaotic lifestyles and disrupted close relationships. In addition, many imprisoned mothers are single parents who are detained far from their families and support systems; this makes the maintenance of relationships between them and their children fraught with difficulty. During the course of this research, 56 imprisoned mothers and the caregivers of the children of 11 of them were interviewed to gather data on how these children and the caregivers were faring while the mothers were in prison and on how the situation could be improved. At a later date 37 of the women, some of whom had been released into the community, were re-interviewed about how their relationships with their children had changed over the time since their last interview and about their current concerns. The results confirm findings from overseas research which identifies the need for programmes and facilities to assist women in prison to maintain their relationship with their children during their sentence. For the successful reintegration of the women into society and the reunification of their families, support and assistance are essential. This support and help is needed by the children, by the temporary caregivers and by the mothers. It is needed both during the period of the mother's imprisonment and after she has been released. Recommendations have been made about policies and practices that are likely to achieve these goals. Directions for future research have been suggested.</p>

Playing with the Discursive: a Feminist Post-Structural Exploration of the Words 'Criminal Woman'

<p>In this thesis I examine the discursive subject of ‘criminal woman’ to uncover possible ‘gaps’ and ‘silences’ on the discursive ground on which ‘she’ stands. To do this I will apply a feminist post-structural reading, interpretation, and analysis to literature, and the experiences of two ‘women’ who have previously been imprisoned in Aotearoa/New Zealand prisons. This thesis begins with a description of myself, and my position at the start of my research journey. During this phase of my writing I will introduce the central theoretical constructs that will appear throughout my thesis, those of power, knowledge, power/knowledge, discourse, and subjectivity. I will also introduce here the ideas of Michel Foucault, and how these ideas have been developed in feminist post-structural theorising. I will follow my theoretical positioning with three extensive literature reviews, the first being criminological literature, the second penological literature, and the third the intersection of these two forms of literature, or that of the experiences of ‘women’ in prison. Through the literature I will show how the discursive subject called ‘criminal woman’ is a construct, which applies ‘gendered’ dualistic extremes to position the ‘criminal woman’ as either too ‘feminine’ or not ‘feminine’ at all. Subsequently, penological practices tend to ‘author’ the ‘criminal woman’ into these dualistic positions. In addition, feminist standpoint literature on criminology seems to offer only two positions to the ‘criminal woman’ that of being a ‘victim’, or that being a ‘mother’. This is further shown in the literature of intersections where the ‘criminal woman’ offers no resistance to penological practices but becomes a ‘victim’ to these practices, or succumbs to these practices in order to return home to her children. Following the literature reviews I will introduce my own research which involved a series of interviews with two ‘women’ who recently had an experience of confinement in Aotearoa/New Zealand prisons. In my methodology, I will discuss the assumptions I have carried into my research and the methods I used to interview Rene and Sophia. Through analysing the experiences of Rene and Sophia I will show how penological practices attempted to rewrite Rene and Sophia into the position of ‘criminal women’. However, I also show how Rene and Sophia resisted this authoring after prison through the constitutive positions of their ‘selves’ that they introduced in the ‘words’ spoken in the interviews. I conclude that Rene and Sophia did not fit within the defined and confined space of the discursive ‘criminal woman’, and what penological practices attempted to do was to “strip” (Rene) or “crush” (Sophia) into this constitutive position. I argue that the discursive position of ‘criminal woman’ does not define Rene or Sophia, and that a discursive violence occurs when research or theory attempts to define them as such. I conclude by looking back over my journey to show how my research does not stand in the domains of criminology or penology; that it stands outside of these knowledges through the theoretical positioning it uses. I look at what happens when ‘we’ as researchers, and readers of academic texts, use a theoretical knowledge to build our own understanding of the ‘criminal woman’ concluding that a need exists for more feminist post-structural reading and research. A type of research that attempts to question and disrupt the knowledges that create, recreate and surround the subject called ‘criminal woman’.</p>

The Children of Women in Prison

<p>The central focus of this thesis is on children whose mothers are sent to prison. Both the mothers and their children are vulnerable populations; they are likely to have experienced family violence, abuse, drug and alcohol misuse, chaotic lifestyles and disrupted close relationships. In addition, many imprisoned mothers are single parents who are detained far from their families and support systems; this makes the maintenance of relationships between them and their children fraught with difficulty. During the course of this research, 56 imprisoned mothers and the caregivers of the children of 11 of them were interviewed to gather data on how these children and the caregivers were faring while the mothers were in prison and on how the situation could be improved. At a later date 37 of the women, some of whom had been released into the community, were re-interviewed about how their relationships with their children had changed over the time since their last interview and about their current concerns. The results confirm findings from overseas research which identifies the need for programmes and facilities to assist women in prison to maintain their relationship with their children during their sentence. For the successful reintegration of the women into society and the reunification of their families, support and assistance are essential. This support and help is needed by the children, by the temporary caregivers and by the mothers. It is needed both during the period of the mother's imprisonment and after she has been released. Recommendations have been made about policies and practices that are likely to achieve these goals. Directions for future research have been suggested.</p>