“Die deutsche Grammatica … von Charmyntes” (Berlin, 1713): Creation, Author and Readers

The first printed German language grammar, created for Russians, “Die deutsche Grammatica <…> von Charmyntes” was published in Berlin, in 1713. The authors investigate its extant copies, paying particular attention to the variants, held in the Russian Academy of Sciences and the Russian National Library. They verify the assumption, stated by K. Koch (2002), that J. L. Frisch was the compiler of the manual, and discuss, why he might hide under the odd alias “Charmyntes”. The scholar’s biography and scientific legacy are succinctly outlined. Frisch’s role in the establishment of the first Russian-German coterie is considered. He taught several noble students from Russia (first — the Golovkins, especially Alexander, his long-time friend and collaborator; and then — “Moscowitische Prinzen oder Knaesen” — the Dolgorukies and Repnins). Frisch’s works were purchased for Russian private and public libraries. Some of them could be presented to the scholars (G. F. Müller) or aristocrats (tsarevna Maria Alekseyevna), visiting him. The authors suggest hypotheses, why Charmyntes did not want to reveal his real name and his possible encouragers: Muscovite acquaintances or German patrons. “Die deutsche Grammatica” was published in the year momentous for Prussian foreign affairs. The new king was establishing allied relations with Peter I. The country gradually waded into the Great Northern War.

Peter the Great and His Time in Russian Song and Prose Folklore

В статье, посвященной 300-летию Российской империи и 350-летию со дня рождения Петра Великого, речь идет об отражении в фольклоре петровского времени некоторых важных военных событий: Северной войны со Швецией 1700-1721 гг. и ее кульминации - Полтавской битвы. Отмечается, что в исторических песнях о Северной войне есть не только изображение военных событий, но и окрашенный лиризмом, психологически верный показ душевного мира персонажей, их ожиданий и надежд. Представляет интерес и песня о русских солдатах, готовящихся к сражению со шведами, с иносказательным мотивом приготовленного врагам «угощения». Внимания заслуживает и устная историческая проза Петровской эпохи: предания, легенды, анекдоты и сказки. Воображение народа пробудила неординарная личность первого императора России и необычный образ жизни этого царя, «работника на троне». Так, смелое решение Петра I - перелить часть монастырских колоколов в пушки - отразилось в нескольких преданиях и анекдотах: эта идея приписывается и пушечному мастеру, и мудрому патриарху, и самому царю. Резко выражены социально-политические конфликты и мотивы в исторических песнях, анекдотах и бытовых сказках об А. Д. Меншикове. В песнях народное недовольство неблаговидными деяниями петровского временщика выражено прямо, в едкой и насмешливой форме. В фольклорной прозе противоречивость натуры царского фаворита и сподвижника передается более тонко, как, например, в сказке о царе и кузнеце, в одном из вариантов которой кузнецом оказывается Меншиков. Безбоязненно обличается в исторических песнях и преданиях взяточник и казнокрад, первый сибирский губернатор М. П. Гагарин, казненный за свои провинности по приказу Петра I в 1721 г. Сделан вывод, что в исторических песнях и устной прозе наблюдаются жанровые отличия в изображении Петра I и его времени, и только во всей совокупности текстов разных жанров образы людей и событий представлены разносторонне, с присущими им противоречиями, передающими не правду факта, а дух эпохи. This article, dedicated to the 300 th anniversary of the Russian Empire and the 350 th anniversary of Peter the Great’s birth, deals with the Great Northern War of 1700-1721 and its culmination, the Battle of Poltava, as they are reflected in the folklore of Peter’s time. Historical songs about the Great Northern War not only feature military events, but also present a lyrically colored, psychologically convincing portrayal of their characters. The songs include one about Russian soldiers getting ready for battle with the Swedes preparing various allegorical “dishes” prepared for their enemies. The article also examines the oral historical prose of the era, including legends, anecdotes and fairy tales. The extraordinary personality of the first emperor of Russia and his unusual way of life as “a worker on the throne” caught the people’s imagination. Several legends and anecdotes describe Peter’s decision to recast monastery bells as cannons, an idea they attribute to the cannon master, the patriarch, and to the tsar himself. Historical songs, anecdotes and household tales about A. D. Menshikov express socio-political conflicts and motifs. The songs reflect discontent with the unseemly deeds of Peter’s favorite and associate in a caustic and mocking form. In folklore prose, Menshikov’s contradictory nature is conveyed more subtly, as, for example, in a fairy tale about the tsar and a blacksmith, in one variant of which Menshikov himself turns out to be a blacksmith. Other historical songs and legends denounce M. P. Gagarin, the first governor of Siberia, bribe-taker and embezzler, whom Peter the Great had executed for his crimes in 1721. The image of Peter the Great and his time differs in historical songs and oral prose, due in part to differences in genre. However, taken in their entirety, the texts present a multi-faceted picture of people and events that, along with their inherent contradictions, convey not the factual truth but the spirit of the era.

Сharles XII at Narva in autumn 1700: Testimonies from his confidants

The Narva campaign of Charles XII and the victory of the Swedish army over the Russian army in the Battle of Narva on November 19, 1700, was the greatest success of Charles XII and, at the same time, the gravest defeat of Peter I in The Great Northern War (1700–1721). This explains the long-standing and close attention of historians to the role of the young Swedish king in the «greatest victory over the Russians». The memoirs, diaries and letters of the soldiers of the army of Charles XII, published at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, make it possible to clearly understand this role. The article analyzes the little-known evidence of the closest circle of Charles XII about his actions on the eve and at the time of the Narva battle.

Development of the Russian industrial base and technology for the production of artillery weapons in the 18th century

The purpose of the research is to reveal the features of the creation and activity of the Russian military industry for the production of artillery weapons and ammunition in the 18th century. The article deals with issues related to the accelerated development of industry under Peter I, especially metallurgy, associated with the Great Northern War (1700-1721). Attention is drawn to the fact that due to the construction of a group of state-run private iron foundries and ironworks, four industrial districts were formed – Tula, Olonets, the Urals and St. Petersburg. These districts had for a long time been the main arsenals for the production of artillery weapons for the Russian army. The author focuses on the aspects of improving the quality of products produced by weapons factories in the 18th century. Scientific novelty consists in an interdisciplinary consideration of the issue involving the works of authors whose works were published in the pre-revolutionary, Soviet and modern periods and in the introduction of previously unpublished sources into scientific circulation. It is concluded that the development of the organisational structure of the Russian army caused an increase in the production of artillery weapons and ammunition and the creation of the necessary amount of stocks of these weapons to meet the current needs of the army and navy.

The Burghers of Nyen as Creditors and Suppliers in the Great Northern War (1700–1714)

This chapter focuses on the burghers of Nyen (the Swedish settlement and largest trading town in Ingria) and their role as financers of the Great Northern War (1700–1721), which marked the end of Swedish Ingria and the ceding of the area back to Russia. As the battle over Ingria and Finland prolonged, the Nyen merchants – and particularly the wealthiest of them, Johan Henrik Frisius – became indispensable for the crown as suppliers and financiers. Even though Frisius and his colleagues were refugees from their destroyed hometown, they had better international connections and credit standing than the Swedish crown and managed to operate more efficiently at the markets than the royal officials.

The Sales of Crown Farms and State Finances 1580–1808

This chapter analyses the sales of crown farms as a form of financing the war. The early modern Swedish crown was a major landowner, as, under Swedish law, all farms deserted or unable to pay their taxes three years in a row became crown property. The article shows how the selling of these farms to private buyers became an important source of revenue in the 18th century, first to finance the Great Northern War and later to cover the massive public debt created by the war. By purchasing crown farms, private Swedish and Finnish individuals became indirectly important financers of war.

THE KOCHUBEY FTMELY AS LITERARY HEROES

The Kochubey family has left a significant mark on history, politics, and state reform. The article considers the representatives of the family as statesmen and literary characters of the works of Alexander Pushkin and Leo Tolstoy. Vasyl Kochubey, the protagonist of the poem “Poltava”, provokes discussions about Pushkin’s assessments of the events of the Great Northern War. However, the author of the poem was interested primarily in the psychological aspect of the character of a person who was captivated by parental feelings. The romanticized image of Kochubey is similar to the image of Mazepa from Byron’s poem, also far from historical similarity. L. Tolstoy’s novel depicts another well-known representative of the family, Viktor Pavlovich Kochubey, whose role in the work is significant not in the plot development, but ideologically - as an alternative to the Decembrist path of development of the Russian Empire. This is the hero who influenced the principles of Andrew Balkonsky, partially influenced the views of his son. The article suggests the absence of images of Dykan Kochubeys in the works of M. Gogol. The theme of historical and literary memory in the works of M. Gogol, who bypassed the silence of famous neighbors, is studied. The Kochubey family left a noticeable mark on Poltava land. Dykanka is still called Kochubeyivska, there is the Mykolayiv Church with a family crypt and an oak alley, which witnessed the love of Mazepa and Motri.

The Traditional Ranks in the Petrine Epoch: Between Afterlife and Innovation

The ranks and awards of Russian service elites and nobility have been a historiographical issue since the eighteenth century. G. F. Miller reflected on the psychology of the Tsar’s subjects, who asked Peter the Great to keep some of the old ranks during the introduction of new ones and described two such cases. Soviet historians of the 1980s discovered several appointments to the old ranks made in the early eighteenth century and registered in archival documents. These curious cases were interpreted by researchers as isolated exceptions or the result of the inertia of old practices. The study of mass historical sources has since led to the discovery of more than 1100 cases of this kind and provided different contexts in which these awards were granted. It was previously thought that Tsar Peter ridiculed the old ranks, giving them only to his jesters. Modern research on Peter’s innovations leads to a different view. For example, the introduction of the Hungarian dress and beard shaving was carried out in several steps, with backtracking. There has also been some oversimplification of the comparative pairs of epithets, such as “Muscovite-Imperial”, “old-new”, “ and “boyars-nobility”, which reflects nothing but the didactic attitudes of historians themselves. This article demonstrates that there was no dearth of official awards or withdrawal of the Duma ranks until the 1710s, at least. The introduction of The Table of Ranks did not abolish the ranks of “courtiers” (tsaredvortsy), as the earlier Muscovite ranks were called, which became the basis of the nobility. Peter I introduced several innovations to the traditional service hierarchy. Before the beginning of the Great Northern War, hundreds of the Tsarina’s stol’niki and court servitors were transferred to the Muscovite ranks, following which the Zhiletsky List continued being replenished for some years afterwards. The drama of ranks was aggravated by the enhanced status of the regular army ranks, which were outside the Moskovsky Spisok (the hierarchy of traditional ranks). The course of events was accelerated by the Tsar’s intention to implement European analogues of court and civil titles. Nevertheless, the popularity of the traditional ranks outside the army remained high. According to many sources, the traditional ranks of Muscovy were kept in check and re-registered throughout Peter’s reign. The Tsar’s decrees raised the status of military service. He sometimes approved petitions for the Duma ranks by several of his subjects and had his unique way of indicating the prospects for advancement to other petitioners. The low-level Muscovite ranks within the traditional hierarchy proved to be more stable than previously assumed. Muscovite ranks were not included in The Table of Ranks because the only rank of mass appointments by the early 1720s was that of a d’iak.