Whoso List to Find?

Seeing what Englishwomen saw in the early modern period brings them into view in a variety of new ways, many of them managed and enhanced by the machinery of cheap print. In contrast with Petrarchan poetry, which imagined women with fear and described love as plague, print established other models of health and wellness, and other ways of registering women’s powers. Women known as searchers who were charged to enter houses and locate plague rather than flee from it shared their findings with town officials who printed up statistics in weekly Bills of Mortality. The searcher was both a ‘harbinger of disaster’ and a tool of recovery, and popular ballads of the time frequently deploy her example along with her abilities to avoid ruin and register signs of life. These ballads supply alternatives to Petrarchan demographics, and I examine the ways early modern female poets draw upon their methodology, too.

“Thief in the Name of Kidd”: Unscrupulous Opportunism and Cheap Print in Late Regency London

William Kidd saw himself as a struggling small publisher of illustrated books operating during the 1830s in a marketplace that favoured large scale firms. His response to his perceived disadvantages was twofold. In seeking to reach a rapidly expanding cohort of leisure-based readers, Kidd deployed aggressive marketing policies that frequently sailed close to the law and generated considerable controversy. He was also less than honest about just who had written or illustrated his books. At the same time, he initiated new genres of relatively cheap illustrated publications based on the recreational interest and habits of an emerging lower middle class and artisan reading public. In particular, he took advantage of the wood engraving as a cheap reprographic medium, and employed highly capable draughtsmen such as Robert Cruikshank, Robert Seymour and George Bonner to illustrate his books and pamphlets. His pocket guides to British seaside resorts, his development of the illustrated reprints known as jeu d’esprit or Facetiae and his packaging up of sayings, mottos and nuggets of information into small format gatherings all show a lively minded and innovative response to the rapidly changing literary marketplace. Kidd’s career suggests both the legally chaotic nature of the literary marketplace and the entrepreneurial opportunities offered to a shrewd if unscrupulous publisher in late Regency London.

The Beginnings of Literary Mass Culture

This chapter argues that early modern England saw the emergence of an unprecedented literary phenomenon: a popular mass market for literature. Examining the ballad trade, it shows how working people became consumers of nationally produced cheap print alongside other mass commodities. In addressing an audience of working people, ballads pioneered new literary subjects and genres. They depicted labor in terms that appealed to their audiences, violating the norms of decorum that had shaped high literary culture. Yet they also cast working people in the circumscribed role of consumers; in the long run, mass commercial culture would come to replace many local, self-produced forms of popular art. The formation of a national market for cheap goods, one basis of capitalism, thus had a transformative impact on literary history.

John Pym and Libellous Politics in Early Civil War England

This article explores the royalist libels that afflicted the parliamentarian leader John Pym during the early 1640s to argue that the period marked an important turning point in English libellous politics. First, like many of the political libels circulating in early Civil War England, royalist attacks against Pym transitioned unsteadily from manuscript to cheap print and then finally into official court-sponsored publications throughout the period as contemporaries grew more comfortable with openly libellous language. That medial transformation, in turn, was informed by a broader personalization of politics that drew on early Stuart modes of ‘politic thinking’ to frame the nascent military conflict as a battle of rival political personalities. Both contexts informed the creation and dissemination of the most vicious anti-Pym libel of the period: an allegation that Pym's mother had once committed the act of bestiality with a horse, and that Pym himself was the miscegenated result of their illicit union. Rather than a spurious invention, moreover, the horse libel in fact possessed tangible roots in an embarrassing episode of Pym's family history thirty years prior. Consequently, it demonstrates the importance of oral and scribal transmission alike in shaping and sustaining the vitriolic libellous politics of early Civil War England.

Children and Cheap Print from a Transnational Perspective

From their earliest existence cheap printed texts were intended to be read by a mixed-age audience, young people included. Research on children’s literature has flourished in the last decades, nonetheless the role that cheap and ephemeral print played in early modern children’s lives has been largely overlooked. Based on both existing literature and new research in various European areas, this article asks how, where, and when a market for a distinctively children’s cheap print took shape and how transnational this phenomenon was. It demonstrates that children were avid consumers of cheap print even before they were openly addressed to in titlepages and paratexts, and that a market for them developed at different paces in early modern European countries. In some areas, books for children were produced even before the so-called birth of modern children’s literature. Furthermore, this essays shows how the evolution of printing techniques and especially the introduction of colour changed this market, making a wider range of printed products more widely affordable by juvenile audiences as well as more appealing to young eyes.

Street Literature

Chapter 5 explores the way in which cheap print was sold on the streets in early modern Scotland, and particularly in Edinburgh. It examines the world of outdoor commerce in general, before detailing the ways in which broadsides, pamphlets, and newspapers were vended in public places. It focuses on the ‘paper criers’ and ‘running stationers’ who plied their trade in the markets and thoroughfares. The coffeehouses of Edinburgh, Glasgow, and other burghs are identified and described, and the ways in which print circulated in them are recovered. The chapter illustrates the public and communal nature of much cheap print and suggests that this characteristic helps to explain why so little of it has survived.