Application Of Behavior Modification Using Flooding Techniques To Reduce Traumatic Children In PTSD

PTSD (Post Trauma Stress Disorder) is a maladigmatic reaction that can be experienced by an individual after experiencing a traumatic event in his life. This will have an adverse effect if the individual cannot eliminate the trauma, so that it can disrupt his daily activities. The main symptom of PTSD is involuntary backlash of traumatic events in the form of intrusive dreams or "shadows", which burst into consciousness suddenly (flashbacks). This research was conducted to reduce maladaptive behavior such as crying when listening to people talking loudly to children who see domestic violence in their parents. The subjects in this study were one person carried out for eighteen days divided into six days of assessment and twelve days of therapy. The method used in this research is behavior modification with flooding techniques, where the traumatic trigger stimulus will be presented directly to the subject and after that will be given an understanding of the situation. The results of research that have been done show that the subject is able to maintain the behavior of not crying when hearing a high tone of voice when hearing other people talk.

Fake economy and causes of unpremeditated distortion of information as its objective foundation

In information and its higher stage of development – digital economy of the second decade of the 21st century fake has acquired independence and turned into a trigger (stimulus, factor), which can initiate different processes in society and economy, politics and mass media. Topicality of the research is stipulated by crisis phenomena in economy, which intensify its fake nature, by growing inequality of incomes and their distribution, by assimilation of objectivity, trustworthiness and completeness of information on markets, when there is no confidence in knowledge and product, by increasing volume of information in the world that can be characterized as information explosion. The aim of the article is to show what fake economy is, provide its definition and reveal its nature, characteristics and goals. Is it a new economic system or a new stage of capitalism development? What are the prospects of its development? The author’s definition of the idea of fake economy’ is given: it is a new stage of present day capitalism development envisaged by general, system, global, integrated crisis or a certain type of capitalist industrial relations, where fraud, fake and counterfeit of correct opinions about realities play a serious role.

Adaptive disinhibitory gating by VIP interneurons permits associative learning

Learning drives behavioral adaptations necessary for survival. While plasticity of excitatory projection neurons during associative learning is studied extensively, little is known about the contributions of local interneurons. Using fear conditioning as a model for associative learning, we find that behaviorally relevant, salient stimuli cause learning by tapping into a local microcircuit consisting of precisely connected subtypes of inhibitory interneurons. By employing calcium imaging and optogenetics, we demonstrate that vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP)-expressing interneurons in the basolateral amygdala are activated by aversive events and provide an instructive disinhibitory signal for associative learning. Notably, VIP interneuron responses are plastic and shift from the instructive to the predictive cue upon memory formation. We describe a novel form of adaptive disinhibitory gating by VIP interneurons that allows to discriminate unexpected, important from irrelevant information, and might be a general dynamic circuit motif to trigger stimulus-specific learning, thereby ensuring appropriate behavioral adaptations to salient events.

Autonomic Dysreflexia

Autonomic dysreflexia (AD), a potentially emergent clinical syndrome that can occur in patients with spinal cord injury, is characterized by a sudden rise in blood pressure caused by uncontrolled sympathetic activation of the autonomic system below the level of the lesion. When caring for spinal cord injury (SCI) patients, a pretreatment plan should be in place if an AD episode occurs. Physical manifestations of an AD episode can include headache, flushing, and diaphoresis above the lesion. Treatment should be aimed at identifying and eliminating the trigger stimulus and must be prompt to avoid serious complications of blood pressure elevation such as seizures, intracranial hemorrhage, myocardial infarction, or even death. When nonpharmacological measures fail, quick-onset, short-acting antihypertensive medications should be given to lower blood pressure.

Treating the Initial Physical Reflex of Misophonia With the Neural Repatterning Technique: A Counterconditioning Procedure

Misophonia is a condition in which a person has an acute emotional response of anger or disgust to a commonly occurring innocuous auditory or visual stimulus referred to as a trigger. This case details the effective treatment of misophonia in a young woman that included a counterconditioning treatment called the Neural Repatterning Technique (NRT), which combines a continuous positive stimulus and a reduced intensity, intermittent trigger. The treatment was delivered via the Misophonia Trigger Tamer smartphone app and all treatments were conducted independently by the patient. In this patient, the trigger elicited a physical reflex of contraction of the flexor digitorum profundus, which caused her to clench her fist. To enhance the effect of the NRT treatment, Progressive Muscle Relaxation was incorporated to increase her ability to deliberately relax the affected muscle during treatment. During NRT treatment sessions, the patient experienced a weak physical reflex to the reduced trigger stimulus but no emotional response. Her emotional response of misophonia was not treated, but when the physical reflex extinguished, the emotional response also extinguished. This case indicates that the misophonic response includes a Pavlovian-conditioned physical reflex. It is proposed that the trigger elicited the physical reflex and the physical reflex then elicited the conditioned emotional response that is characteristic of misophonia. Because of the conditioned reflex nature of misophonia, it is proposed that a more appropriate name for this disorder would be Conditioned Aversive Reflex Disorder.

Etiology, Composition, Development and Maintenance of Misophonia: A Conditioned Aversive Reflex Disorder

Misophonia is a recently identified condition in which an individual has an acute reaction of hatred or disgust to a specific commonly occurring sound. We propose that misophonia is a form of conditioned behavior that develops as a physical reflex through Pavlovian conditioning. Although misophonia is generally considered to be a one-step reaction, in which the sound elicits rage or disgust, as well as typical autonomic responses associated with these emotions, we propose that misophonia is a two-step reaction, in which the sound elicits an aversive conditioned physical reflex, and the aversive conditioned physical reflex elicits hatred or disgust. We also propose that the emotional response to trigger stimuli creates a Pavlovian conditioning paradigm that maintains or strengthens the misophonic physical reflex. Finally, we propose that new misophonic trigger stimuli are developed through the pairing of a neutral stimulus with a misophonic trigger stimulus. We suggest that a better name for misophonia is Conditioned Aversive Reflex Disorder (CARD) since it focuses attention on the reflexive nature of this condition and incorporates multiple stimuli modalities. A counterconditioning treatment for misophonia is presented with brief case descriptions which demonstrate the conditioned reflex nature of this disorder.

Trigeminal Neuralgia: The New Surgical Treatment Modalities

ABSTRACT Trigeminal Neuralgia is a painful condition of the oro-facial structures. The diagnostic criteria are based upon the patient's history, examination and clinical evaluation. In the course of the disease patients experience dull, aching, throbbing or burning, constant pain in the same distribution as the paroxysms. A long interval between the attacks is often described as a period of increasing paresthesias in the nerve distribution. The trigger stimulus, applied to the “trigger zone”, often arouses intense pain in divisions beyond the one stimulated. Treatment involves the medicinal as well as surgical procedures. Medicinal therapy is usually first to start. With time patient became refractive to medicinal therapy. Under this condition, surgical treatment is recommended. This paper focus particularly on the surgical aspect of this painful condition.

Influence of Spatial Information on Responses of Tonically Active Neurons in the Monkey Striatum

Previous studies have demonstrated that tonically active neurons (TANs) in the primate striatum play an important role in the detection of rewarding events. However, the influence of the spatial features of stimuli or actions required to obtain reward remains unclear. Here, we examined the activity of TANs in the striatum of monkeys trained to make spatially directed movements elicited by visual stimuli presented ipsilaterally or contralaterally to the moving arm. Among 181 neurons responding to the trigger stimulus, 127 (70%) were nonselective for stimulus location and 54 (30%) responded to only one location of the stimulus. Most of the selective responses (63%) occurred when the stimulus was presented contralaterally to the moving arm. To examine whether TAN responses are related to the location of the stimulus or to the direction of the movement, we tested a subset of the trigger-responsive neurons ( n = 44) in a condition that elicited reaching toward or away from the stimulus. By comparing TAN activity between the two conditions, we found that half of the responses can be interpreted as being related to the location of the stimulus, one quarter to the direction of movement, and one quarter to the context in which stimulus–movement combination occurs. These results demonstrate that TANs are not limited to motivational processing, but may play a role in the processing of spatial attributes of stimulus and/or movement as well. These response properties suggest that TANs are involved in the flexible shifting of motor responses during spatially directed behavior.

Reward-Related Neuronal Activity During Go-Nogo Task Performance in Primate Orbitofrontal Cortex

The orbitofrontal cortex appears to be involved in the control of voluntary, goal-directed behavior by motivational outcomes. This study investigated how orbitofrontal neurons process information about rewards in a task that depends on intact orbitofrontal functions. In a delayed go-nogo task, animals executed or withheld a reaching movement and obtained liquid or a conditioned sound as reinforcement. An initial instruction picture indicated the behavioral reaction to be performed (movement vs. nonmovement) and the reinforcer to be obtained (liquid vs. sound) after a subsequent trigger stimulus. We found task-related activations in 188 of 505 neurons in rostral orbitofrontal area 13, entire area 11, and lateral area 14. The principal task-related activations consisted of responses to instructions, activations preceding reinforcers, or responses to reinforcers. Most activations reflected the reinforcing event rather than other task components. Instruction responses occurred either in liquid- or sound-reinforced trials but rarely distinguished between movement and nonmovement reactions. These instruction responses reflected the predicted motivational outcome rather than the behavioral reaction necessary for obtaining that outcome. Activations preceding the reinforcer began slowly and terminated immediately after the reinforcer, even when the reinforcer occurred earlier or later than usually. These activations preceded usually the liquid reward but rarely the conditioned auditory reinforcer. The activations also preceded expected drops of liquid delivered outside the task, suggesting a primary appetitive rather than a task-reinforcing relationship that apparently was related to the expectation of reward. Responses after the reinforcer occurred in liquid- but rarely in sound-reinforced trials. Reward-preceding activations and reward responses were unrelated temporally to licking movements. Several neurons showed reward responses outside the task but instruction responses during the task, indicating a response transfer from primary reward to the reward-predicting instruction, possibly reflecting the temporal unpredictability of reward. In conclusion, orbitofrontal neurons report stimuli associated with reinforcers are concerned with the expectation of reward and detect reward delivery at trial end. These activities may contribute to the processing of reward information for the motivational control of goal-directed behavior.

Influence of Predictive Information on Responses of Tonically Active Neurons in the Monkey Striatum

Apicella, Paul, Sabrina Ravel, Pierangelo Sardo, and Eric Legallet. Influence of predictive information on responses of tonically active neurons in the monkey striatum. J. Neurophysiol. 80: 3341–3344, 1998. We investigated how the expectation of a signal of behavioral significance influences the activity of tonically active neurons in the striatum of two monkeys performing a simple reaction time task under two conditions, an uncued condition in which the trigger stimulus occurred randomly in time and a cued condition in which the same trigger was preceded by an instruction stimulus serving as a predictive signal for the forthcoming signal eliciting an immediate behavioral reaction. Both monkeys benefited from the presence of the instruction stimulus to reduce their reaction time, suggesting an increased ability to predict the trigger onset during cued trials compared with uncued trials. A majority of neurons (199/272, 73%) showed a phasic reduction in activity after the onset of the trigger stimulus in the uncued condition, whereas only 38% responded to the same stimulus when it was preceded by the instruction. Furthermore, magnitudes of trigger responses in the uncued condition were significantly higher than in the cued condition. Fifty-seven percent of the neurons responded to the instruction stimulus, and one-half of the neurons losing their response to the trigger in the cued condition responded to the instruction stimulus. These findings suggest that responses of tonic striatal neurons to a trigger stimulus for movement were influenced by predictive information.