The Characterization of the Dust Content in the Ring Around Sz 91: Indications of Planetesimal Formation?

One of the most important questions in the field of planet formation is how millimeter- and centimeter-sized dust particles overcome radial drift and fragmentation barriers to form kilometer-sized planetesimals. ALMA observations of protoplanetary disks, in particular transition disks or disks with clear signs of substructures, can provide new constraints on theories of grain growth and planetesimal formation, and therefore represent one possibility for progress on this issue. We here present ALMA band 4 (2.1 mm) observations of the transition disk system Sz 91, and combine them with previously obtained band 6 (1.3 mm) and band 7 (0.9 mm) observations. Sz 91, with its well-defined millimeter ring, more extended gas disk, and evidence of smaller dust particles close to the star, constitutes a clear case of dust filtering and the accumulation of millimeter-sized particles in a gas pressure bump. We compute the spectral index (nearly constant at ∼3.34), optical depth (marginally optically thick), and maximum grain size (∼0.61 mm) in the dust ring from the multi-wavelength ALMA observations, and compare the results with recently published simulations of grain growth in disk substructures. Our observational results are in strong agreement with the predictions of models for grain growth in dust rings that include fragmentation and planetesimal formation through streaming instability.

Planetesimal formation at the gas pressure bump following a migrating planet

Context. Many scenarios have been proposed to avoid known difficulties in planetesimal formation such as drift or fragmentation barriers. However, in these scenarios planetesimals in general only form at some specific locations in protoplanetary discs. On the other hand, it is generally assumed in planet formation models and population synthesis models that planetesimals are broadly distributed in the protoplanetary disc. Aims. We propose a new scenario in which planetesimals can form in broad areas of these discs. Planetesimals form at the gas pressure bump formed by a first-generation planet (e.g. formed by pebble accretion) and the formation region spreads inward in the disc as the planet migrates. Methods. We used a simple 1D Lagrangian particle model to calculate the radial distribution of pebbles in the gas disc perturbed by a migrating embedded planet. We consider that planetesimals form by streaming instability at the points where the pebble-to-gas density ratio on the mid-plane becomes larger than unity. In this work, we fixed the Stokes number of pebbles and the mass of the planet to study the basic characteristics of this new scenario. We also studied the effect of some key parameters, such as the gas disc model, the pebble mass flux, the migration speed of the planet, and the strength of turbulence. Results. We find that planetesimals form in wide areas of protoplanetary discs provided the flux of pebbles is typical and the turbulence is not too strong. The planetesimal surface density depends on the pebble mass flux and the migration speed of the planet. The total mass of the planetesimals and the orbital position of the formation area strongly depend on the pebble mass flux. We also find that the profile of the planetesimal surface density and its slope can be estimated by very simple equations. Conclusions. We show that our new scenario can explain the formation of planetesimals in broad areas. The simple estimates we provide for the planetesimal surface density profile can be used as initial conditions for population synthesis models.

Carbonic nanostructures in subsurface rocks: problem review Part II. Graphene, carbonic nanotubes, nanofibers

The paper reviews the publications on the search and exploration of carbonic nanotubes and other nanocarbonic structures in subsurface rocks. It is shown that the graphenes and carbonic nanotubes (CNT) exist in the composition of various magmatic and sedimentary rocks. They are formed in the graphite globules of volcanic rocks, as well as in the sediments, where the pressure, the particles of metallic catalysts, the tension stresses and time factors in million years compensate the absence of high temperatures. Experimental laboratory modeling of natural processes has been carried out and the reality of formation of carbonic nanostructures during the pyrolysis of volcanic gases on the lava catalysts, mechanical activation and processing of amorphous carbon or bituminous coal shown. Principal possibility of realization of technology of CNT mass production via pyrolysis of hydrocarbon crude material in the presence of different catalytically-active natural minerals has been reviewed and proven. The analysis of the aspects following the activity of mud volcanoes shows that there are all suppositions for the formation of carbonic nanostructures: the pressure bump of deep rocks out of the hot eruptive centre, methane as carbonic crude, catalytically-active breccias containing transition metals and their oxides, the process of methane burning in the medium poor of oxygen. However, it is not yet absolutely clear. As a working hypothesis we propose a model of formation of these structures due to the mud volcanism activity in the reactions of methane flow, the catalysts in which natural minerals exist. In such processes as a result of intensive methane flow, there occur negative pressure values and cavitation effects in the presence of which local temperature and pressure increase efficient for formation of adamantine and nanosize carbonic structures take place. In case if this mechanism is real, the studies point to a perspective of obtaining valuable products in conditions of natural geological processes. There are no messages or publications yet on the exploration of carbonic nanostructures in the rocks of mud volcanoes.

Pebble-isolation mass: Scaling law and implications for the formation of super-Earths and gas giants

The growth of a planetary core by pebble accretion stops at the so-called pebble isolation mass, when the core generates a pressure bump that traps drifting pebbles outside its orbit. The value of the pebble isolation mass is crucial in determining the final planet mass. If the isolation mass is very low, gas accretion is protracted and the planet remains at a few Earth masses with a mainly solid composition. For higher values of the pebble isolation mass, the planet might be able to accrete gas from the protoplanetary disc and grow into a gas giant. Previous works have determined a scaling of the pebble isolation mass with cube of the disc aspect ratio. Here, we expand on previous measurements and explore the dependency of the pebble isolation mass on all relevant parameters of the protoplanetary disc. We use 3D hydrodynamical simulations to measure the pebble isolation mass and derive a simple scaling law that captures the dependence on the local disc structure and the turbulent viscosity parameter α. We find that small pebbles, coupled to the gas, with Stokes number τf < 0.005 can drift through the partial gap at pebble isolation mass. However, as the planetary mass increases, particles must be decreasingly smaller to penetrate the pressure bump. Turbulent diffusion of particles, however, can lead to an increase of the pebble isolation mass by a factor of two, depending on the strength of the background viscosity and on the pebble size. We finally explore the implications of the new scaling law of the pebble isolation mass on the formation of planetary systems by numerically integrating the growth and migration pathways of planets in evolving protoplanetary discs. Compared to models neglecting the dependence of the pebble isolation mass on the α-viscosity, our models including this effect result in higher core masses for giant planets. These higher core masses are more similar to the core masses of the giant planets in the solar system.