An advanced trick to calculate the molecules and ions bond order with practical application

Every molecule has two or more atoms linked to each other through a bond. The number of bonds between two atoms is called bond order. Hence, the bond order gives information about the total number of bonds between two atoms. Besides, different methods and definitions have been given to find out an exact bond order based on various theories. The most acceptable theory to find an exact bond order is the molecular orbital theory. Using this theory, the whole electronic configuration of the molecule is written first, then total electrons present in bonding orbitals as well as antibonding orbitals are counted. After that, the bond order is calculated using an old and time-consuming formula. The presented paper describes an advanced, easy, and time-saving method, named as an advanced trick/method, with a new formula to find out an exact bond order. In this trick, only total electrons and the number of antibonding electrons is considered to calculate the bond order using developed strategy with practical examples.

Luck egalitarianism without moral tyranny

Luck egalitarians contend that, while each person starts out with a claim to an equal quantity of advantage, she can forfeit this claim by making certain choices. The appeal of luck egalitarianism is that it seems to satisfy what this paper calls the moral tyranny constraint. According to this constraint, any acceptable theory of justice must preclude the possibility of an agent unilaterally, discretionarily, and foreseeably leaving others with less advantage under conditions of full compliance with the theory. This paper argues that claim forfeiture is built into luck egalitarianism specifically to preclude such moral tyranny. However, it contends that the dominant interpretation of luck egalitarianism fails to fully satisfy the moral tyranny constraint. It offers an alternative interpretation that both eliminates the possibility of moral tyranny and rescues the position from two other prominent objections that have been directed against luck egalitarianism.

Temporal Neutrality and The Demandingness of Prudence

This chapter provides a rationale for temporal neutrality that succeeds against the rationales for temporal biases provided in Chapter Eleven. I argue that temporally biased agents display unsavory attitudes toward temporally located goods that should not be permitted by an acceptable theory of prudential rationality. Following this, I discuss the demandingness of prudence in light of temporal neutrality, and argue that while prudence may be a significant source of self-regarding reasons, it needn’t be the only such source.

The Duhem-Quine Thesis Reconsidered

The high point of the falsification of physical theories in a standard view of the philosophy of science is the so-called crucial experiment. This experiment is a kind of manipulated empirical test, which provides the criterion for distinguishing between two rival hypotheses, where one is an acceptable theory due to passing the test, and the other turns out to be an unacceptable theory as it does not pass the test. The crucial experiment was supposed to play a significant role because, in virtue of an empirical disconfirmation of one theory, the experiment was assumed to confirm the other as true. However, in 1906, in La théorie physique, son object et la structure (hereafter quoted in English translation as The Aim and Structure of Physical Theory (1906/1954)), Pierre Duhem famously argued against this view and stated that crucial experiments in physics are impossible as they are necessarily ambiguous and logically incomplete. His contention rested on the claim that, “[a] physical theory is not an explanation [of true reality in itself in virtue of some broad metaphysical ramification of physics]. It is a system of mathematical propositions, deduced from a small number of principles, which aim to represent as simply, as completely, and as accurately as possible a set of experimental laws” (ibid., p. 19). Furthermore, different theories could be equally suitable to represent a given group of experimental laws. And, assuming holism, no hypothesis could be tested in isolation, but merely as a part of a set of an entire scientific theory. The problem which Duhem identified in 1906 was slightly overshadowed and neglected in mainstream philosophy of science until the appearance of a challenging paper by Willard Van Orman Quine published in 1951 and entitled “Two Dogmas of Empiricism”. Quine’s paper caused a revival of interest in Duhem’s original formulation and gave a new impulse towards the problem in the form of the so-called Duhem-Quine thesis. The aim of this paper is to reconsider whether Duhem was right to argue that there are no crucial experiments in physics. In order to assess the validity of the thesis, first, this paper makes an exposition of Duhem’s arguments in their favour, and analyses the major criticisms of this position offered in the subject-literature of Adolf Grünbaum, who explicitly attacked the arguments for the thesis as inconclusive and false. Then, this paper presents possible modes of defence of the Duhem-Quine thesis and argues that the original formulation of the thesis is well qualified and plausible. Finally, this paper offers a pragmatic interpretation of the theory choice.

Concept of essential hypertension in Ayurvedic perspectives

Essential hypertension is an instrumental disease which is the recent diagnostic invention of modern science. However there is no any reference which directly resembles with its pathophysiological views in Ayurvedic classics. Lots of works have been carried out on concept of hypertension to evaluate the perfect diagnosis and mode of treatment on the basis of Ayurvedic principles, but a widely acceptable theory is still not available. Different nomenclatures also have been adopted by Ayurvedic researchers like Rakta pradoshaj Vyadhi, Uchharaktachapa and Uchharaktabhara etc. on the basis of pathophysiology and symptoms of disease. Different diseases were considered parallels to hypertension such as; Raktagata Vata, Raktavrita Vata, Pranavrita Vyana, Vyanavrita Prana and Shleshmavrita Vyana etc. Ayurveda believe that pathophysiology of other diseases routes through hypertension. Keywords: Ayurveda, hypertension, Rakta pradoshaj Vyadhi, Raktagata Vata and Raktavrita Vata.

‘Social Laser’: action amplification by stimulated emission of social energy

The problem of the ‘explanation’ of recent social explosions, especially in the Middle East, but also in Southern Europe and the USA, has been debated actively in the social and political literature. We can mention the contributions of P. Mason, F. Fukuyama, E. Schmidt, J. Cohen and I. Krastev to this debate. We point out that the diversity of opinions and conclusions is really amazing. At the moment, there is no consistent and commonly acceptable theory of these phenomena. We present a model of social explosions based on a novel approach for the description of social processes, namely the quantum-like approach. Here quantum theory is treated simply as an operational formalism—without any direct relation to physics. We explore the quantum-like laser model to describe the possibility of action amplification by stimulated emission of social energy.

The Limits of Constructivism: Can Rawls Condemn Female Genital Mutilation?

Constructivist political theory, championed most prominently by John Rawls, builds up a conception of justice from the minimal requirements of political life. It has two powerful attractions. It promises a kind of civic unity in the face of irresolvable differences about the good life. It also offers a foundation for human rights that is secure in the face of those same differences. The very parsimony that is its strength, however, deprives it of the resources to condemn some atrocities. Because it focuses on the political aspect of persons, it has difficulty cognizing violence done to those aspects of the person that are not political, preeminently the body. Constructivism thus can be only a part of an acceptable theory of justice.

Darwin’s Theory of Development and Evolution

Biologists are fond of saying that Darwin was misled by an inadequate theory of inheritance—his the-ory of “pangenesis”—and that this was remedied by the rediscovery of Mendel’s experiments in 1900: . . . As long as no coherent theory of heredity existed, the basis of natural selection could not be understood. Darwin’s theory of pangenesis was an unfortunate anomaly. It was almost his only venture into the field of pure speculation. . . . One might speculate whether Darwin would have formulated his theory of pangenesis if he had been aware of Mendel’s experiments. (J. L. Stebbins, 1977, p. 14; see also, e.g., Mayr, 1963, p. 10; 1966, p. xxvi; Selander, 1972, p. 185) . . . I have argued that some aspects of development can be related to natural selection by visualizing the phenotype as a mosaic of semi-independent sub-units that are dissociated, recombined, lost, and recalled during evolution and that adaptive plasticity plays a role in evolutionary change. Darwin insisted on the same view in The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication (1868), where he gave the most complete exposition of his ideas about development and evolution. In a section titled “The Functional Independence of the Elements or Units of the Body,” Darwin (1868a [1875a], p. 364) wrote that “the whole organism consists of a multitude of elemental parts, which are to a great extent independent of one another. Each organ . . . has its proper life, its autonomy; it can develop and reproduce itself [in descendent individuals] independently of the adjoining tissues” (p. 364). And, “[T]he body consists of a multitude of organic units, all of which possess their own proper attributes, and are to a certain extent independent of all others. Hence it will be convenient to use indifferently the terms cells or organic units, or simply units” (p. 366). Furthermore, Darwin insisted that an acceptable theory of inheritance had to include development: “Two distinct elements are included under the term ‘inheritance’—the transmission, and the development of characters; but as these generally go together, the distinction is often overlooked”.

Photometry of R Coronae Borealis Stars during the Recovery Phases of Their Declines

R Coronae Borealis (RCB) stars are a rare class of variable stars, well-known by their declines, but still posing two fundamental questions: what is the origin and what is the nature of their unpredictable minima? Possible contributions to the answering of these questions could use large-scale surveys, by discovering new RCB stars. In addition, photometric databases from these surveys and other long-term photometric programs of targeted stars can be used to compile information about these decline phases.The photometric observations (UBVRI) of nine cool RCB stars have been collected at Mt John University Observatory, New Zealand, for the last ten years. Analysis of the magnitude–color diagrams for the recovery phase of a number of declines of these stars has been made in order to determine the extinction properties of the dust. The photometric magnitudes and colors show significant changes during the RCB declines. The asymptotic approach to the normal brightness can be seen on the magnitude–color diagrams from the recovery phase. This is observed for all RCB declines, and without exception is independent of their decline amplitude. According to the most acceptable theory, the distribution of the dust matter in the cloud which causes the light fading can be considered uniform as the stars recover to the maximum brightness. The slopes of the magnitude–color and color–color diagrams from the recovery phase of 26 observed RCB declines have been used in order to define the normalized extinction quantity Aλ/AV. Although the extinction curve in the UBVRI region is not a good indicator of the type and size of the particles, our data show that the material causing the RCB declines has extinction properties similar to that for the interstellar medium. The reddening parameter (RBV = AV/E(B – V)) for the RCB stars in our sample is in the range 2.5 to 4.6, similar to the interstellar dust. Observations have been compared with the theoretical extinction curves for different sorts of grains. The extinction properties in the U region follow the trend of the UV data from other RCB observations as well as laboratory data for amorphous carbon.

Disent to Pairing Mechanism

Up to now, the pairing mechanism is regarded as the rule of thumb criterion of an acceptable theory of superconductivity. It is generally held as a taboo for any theory which is not founded on this basis. However this is not true and it misleads the direction for the theoretical research for both the high and low temperature regions and eventually delays the progress in practice. It is now the time to clear up the situation.