This textbook has covered the common causes of broken down teeth: dental caries, tooth wear, and trauma. In addition, long-term failure of parts, or all, of the existing tooth–restoration complex can be significant and may require further operative intervention for its successful management (see Chapter 9). Many intra-coronal defects can be repaired with direct adhesive restorations, as discussed in Chapters 5 and 9. However, the situation can be complicated by the loss of significant portions of existing restoration or tooth structure (e.g. cusps, buccal/lingual walls), which influence the restorative procedures used in an attempt to maintain the tooth longevity, as well as pulp viability, for as long as possible. For direct restorations to succeed clinically, they require healthy dental tissues to aid support, retention, and ideally provide an element of protection from excessive occlusal loads. With diminishing amounts of tooth structure to work with, greater thought and care are required to manage and prepare the remaining viable hard tissues to support and retain the larger restoration. The core restoration describes the often large direct plastic restoration used to build up the clinically broken down crown. It is retained and supported by remaining tooth structure wherever possible (sometimes including the pulp chamber and posts in root canals of endodontically treated teeth). These large restorations often benefit from further overlying protection to secure their clinical longevity, by means of indirect onlays, and partial or full coverage crowns. Before carrying out a detailed clinical examination of the individual tooth and the related oral cavity, it is always important to justify your clinical decisions, for both operative and non-operative preventive interventions. The five key reasons for minimally invasive (MI) operative intervention are:… • to repair hard tissue damage/cavitation caused by the active, progressing caries/tooth-wear process (where non-operative prevention has failed repeatedly) • to remove plaque stagnation areas within cavities/defects which will increase the risk of caries activity due to the lack of effective plaque removal by the patient • to help to manage acute pulpitic pain caused by active caries by removing the bacterial biomass and sealing the defect, thereby protecting the pulp • to restore the tooth to maintain structure and function in the dental arch • aesthetics.