Heterogeneity in Family Life Course Patterns and Intra-Cohort Wealth Disparities in Late Working Age

Considering soaring wealth inequalities in older age, this research addresses the relationship between family life courses and widening wealth differences between individuals as they age. We holistically examine how childbearing and marital histories are associated with personal wealth at ages 50–59 for Western Germans born between 1943 and 1967. We propose that deviations from culturally and institutionally-supported family patterns, or the stratified access to them, associate with differential wealth accumulation over time and can explain wealth inequalities at older ages. Using longitudinal data from the German Socio-Economic Panel Study (SOEP, v34, waves 2002–2017), we first identified typical family trajectory patterns between ages 16 and 50 with multichannel sequence analysis and cluster analysis. We then modelled personal wealth ranks at ages 50–59 as a function of family patterns. Results showed that deviations from the standard family pattern (i.e. stable marriage with, on average, two children) were mostly associated with lower wealth ranks at older age, controlling for childhood characteristics that partly predict selection into family patterns and baseline wealth. We found higher wealth penalties for greater deviation and lower penalties for moderate deviation from the standard family pattern. Addressing entire family trajectories, our research extended and nuanced our knowledge of the role of earlier family behaviour for later economic wellbeing. By using personal-level rather than household-level wealth data, we were able to identify substantial gender differences in the study associations. Our research also recognised the importance of combining marital and childbearing histories to assess wealth inequalities.

Does Bridge Employment Mitigate or Exacerbate Inequalities Later in Life?

This paper explores how gradual retirement impacts inequality later in life, with a focus on transitions from career to bridge employment. We use 26 years of longitudinal data from the Health and Retirement Study to document the various pathways that older Americans take when exiting the labor force, and examine how bridge employment impacts non-housing wealth and total wealth, including the present discounted value of Social Security benefits. We find that gradual retirement in the form of bridge employment neither exacerbates nor mitigates wealth inequalities among Americans who held career jobs later in life. We do find evidence that wealth inequalities grow among the subset of older career workers who transition from career employment to bridge employer at older ages. These findings provide quantitative evidence that bridge employment at older ages is taken by those who need to continue working financially and those who continue working for nonpecuniary reasons.

Trends in socioeconomic inequalities in smoking in Turkey from 2008 to 2016

Background Smoking inequalities in Turkey were previously demonstrated in an early stage of the smoking epidemic model. This paper aimed to assess the trends for socioeconomic inequalities in smoking in Turkey over the years in the context of the smoking epidemic model using data from the Global Adult Tobacco Survey (GATS) Turkey 2008–2012-2016. Methods Cross-sectional data were analyzed to calculate the association of smoking with, wealth, education, occupation and place of residence using age-standardized prevalence rates, odds ratios, relative index of inequality (RII) and slope index of inequality (SII). The analysis was performed separately for age groups (younger: 20–39 years/older: 40 and above years) and sex. Results Younger women with higher wealth and older women with higher wealth and education smoked more. For both age groups, smoking was increased for working class and urban women. Relative wealth inequalities in smoking narrowed and then showed a reversal for younger women (RII2008 = 3.37; 95% CI:1.64–3.40; RII2012 = 2.19; 95% CI:1.48–3.24; RII2016 = 0.80; 95% CI:0.58–1.10, p-for trend < 0.0001). Relative educational inequalities in smoking for older women also showed a narrowing (RII2008 = 21.45; 95% CI:11.74–39.19; RII2012 = 15.25; 95% CI:9.10–25.55; and RII2016 = 5.48; 95% CI:3.86–7.78, p-for trend < 0.0001). For older women, a similar narrowing was observed for wealth (RII2008 = 3.94; 95% CI:2.38–6.53; RII2012 = 2.79; 95% CI:1.80–4.32; and RII2016 = 1.34; 95% CI:0.94–1.91, p-for trend = 0.0001). The only significant trend for absolute inequalities was for younger women by wealth. This trend showed a narrowing and then a reversal (SII2008 = 0.14; 95% CI:0.09–1.20; SII2012 = 0.12; 95% CI:0.06–0.18; and SII2016 = -0.05; 95% CI:-0.12–0.02, p-for trend = 0.0001). Unlike women, smoking in men showed inverse associations for wealth and education, although not statistically confirmed for all years. Smoking was increased in working classes and unemployed men in 2012 and 2016. Inequalities did not show a trend in relative and absolute terms for men. Conclusions For smoking inequalities in Turkey, a transition to the next stage was observed, although the previously defined Southern European pattern also existed. Low socioeconomic women deserve special attention as well as stressors at work and drivers of smoking at urban settings.

Wealth of nomads – an exploratory analysis of livestock inequality in the Saami reindeer husbandry

Social inequality is pervasive in contemporary human societies. Nevertheless, there is a view that livestock, as the primary source of wealth, limits the development of inequalities, making pastoralism unable to support complex or hierarchical organisations. Thus, complex nomadic pastoral organisation is predominantly caused by external factors, i.e., historically nomadic political organisation mirrored the neighbouring sedentary population's sophistication. Using governmental statistics on reindeer herding in Norway (2001 - 2018), this study demonstrates nothing apparent in the pastoral adaptation with livestock as the main base of wealth that level wealth inequalities and limits social differentiation. This study found that inequality was generally decreasing in terms of the Gini coefficient and cumulative wealth. For example, the proportion owned by the wealthy decreased from 2001 to 2018, while the proportion owned by the poor increased. Nevertheless, rank differences persist over time with minor changes. Especially, being poor is stable: around 50% of households ranked as poor in 2001 continued to be so in 2018. In sum, results from this study indicate that pastoral wealth inequality follows the same patterns as all forms of wealth. Wealth accumulates over time, and because the highest earners can save much of their income (i.e., newborn livestock), low earners cannot. High earners can thus accumulate more and more wealth over time, leading to considerable wealth inequalities.

709Inequalities and the role of sterilization in modern contraception in low- and middle-income countries

Background Contraceptive use has increased impressively in the last years. Our aim was to track the proportion of female sterilization in demand for family planning satisfied with modern methods (mDFPS) and its inequalities in terms of wealth. Methods Using data from national health surveys carried out since 2010 in 105 countries, we estimated mDFPS, separating according to type of method. Where the share of female sterilization was at least 25%, we analysed wealth inequalities in the share of sterilization by wealth quintiles and Slope Index of Inequality (SII). Results We included 20 countries, among which mDFPS varied widely (from 6% in Albania to 94% in Brazil). Female sterilization was reported by more than half of women in India, Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Mexico, and Colombia. Most countries presented higher use of sterilization among the richest, but inequality patterns varied greatly. Higher levels of pro-rich inequality were found for Guatemala and Costa Rica (SII of 0.24 and 0.22, respectively). Higher levels of pro-poor inequality were found for Albania and Brazil (SII of -0.25). Conclusions Despite the wider range of methods available, several countries present a large proportion of mDFPS satisfied through female sterilization. Key messages Sterilization might be recommended to some couples, however, its role in mDFPS is excessively high. Promotion of long-acting reversible contraceptives should be strengthened as they are easy to use, highly effective and do not eliminate women’s agency about maternity in the future.

Assessing Wealth-Related Inequalities in Demand for Family Planning Satisfied in 43 African Countries

Background: Around 80% of the African population lives in urban areas, and a rapid urbanization is observed in almost all countries. Urban poverty has been linked to several sexual and reproductive health risks, including high levels of unintended pregnancies. We aim to investigate wealth inequalities in demand for family planning satisfied with modern methods (mDFPS) among women living in urban areas from African countries.Methods: We used data from 43 national health surveys carried out since 2010 to assess wealth inequalities in mDFPS. mDFPS and the share of modern contraceptive use were stratified by groups of household wealth. We also assessed the ecological relationship between the proportion of urban population living in informal settlements and both mDFPS and inequalities in coverage.Results: mDFPS among urban women ranged from 27% (95% CI: 23–31%) in Chad to 87% (95% CI: 84–89%) in Eswatini. We found significant inequalities in mDFPS with lower coverage among the poorest women in most countries. In North Africa, inequalities in mDFPS were identified only in Sudan, where coverage ranged between 7% (95% CI: 3–15%) among the poorest and 52% (95% CI: 49–56%) among the wealthiest. The largest gap in the Eastern and Southern African was found in Angola; 6% (95% CI: 3–11%) among the poorest and 46% (95% CI: 41–51%) among the wealthiest. In West and Central Africa, large gaps were found for almost all countries, especially in Central African Republic, where mDFPS was 11% (95% CI: 7–18%) among the poorest and 47% (95% CI: 41–53%) among the wealthiest. Inequalities by type of method were also observed for urban poor, with an overall pattern of lower use of long-acting and permanent methods. Our ecological analyses showed that the higher the proportion of the population living in informal settlements, the lower the mDFPS and the higher the inequalities.Conclusion: Our results rise the need for more focus on the urban-poorer women by public policies and programs. Future interventions developed by national governments and international organizations should consider the interconnection between urbanization, poverty, and reproductive health.

ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL IMPACTS OF COVID-19 IN THE PAST YEAR IN THE EUROPEAN UNION, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO ROMANIA AND HUNGARY

The COVID-19 pandemic in early 2020 has made a big difference in the lives of all countries around the world. This study is the first part of a 9-months student research work started in 2021 February, based on literature research. Its aim is to present and summarize the major economic and social impacts of the coronavirus epidemic on the macroeconomy and industrial sectors during a one-year period. Our research is mainly based on secondary research methods – and accompanied by data from the most up-to-date statistical databases and other current research studies, we drew conclusions based on our own calculations in connection with the 27 member states of the European Union including Romania and Hungary. As a result of epidemiological measures in national economies, the role of certain sectors has shrunk, while other sectors have undergone tremendous development. The unprecedented spread of teleworking, the reduction in working hours in almost all sectors and the consequent lower wages, and the increase in the unemployment rate, have led to a decline in the value of gross domestic product for all nations, compared to the same period of the previous year. In order to save their country from the collapse of the economy, those responsible for managing them, were also forced to introduce measures that increased the country’s state debt and worsened their public finance position. Certain sectors of the economy have been hit hard by the effects of the past year, but there have also been those that have flexibly adapted to the changes. The sectors responded in different ways in each country. It can be argued, however, that the entertainment industry, performing arts and other services that require a personal form of presence have suffered the most from the constraints of the past year. But in the field of information and communication, there have been positive developments in many countries using the opportunities offered by information technology. However, changes during the pandemic period have led to a further increase in wealth inequalities in our world. As a result, unfortunately, more and more people are falling into deep poverty and the number of wealthy people is also increasing. The transformation of consumers’ values and income situation is having an impact on all sectors of the national economy. The question arises: when will declining companies be able to recover, will they be able to make the profits typical of their pre-epidemic management, and if so, when? Can we live in the future the way we lived in the past? Whether humanity will realize, that the growing differences between continents, countries, people are only creating larger controversies, and at last we do not only realize, but act in a responsible way for the sake of equality for all.

Wealth Accumulation and Opportunity Hoarding: Class-Origin Wealth Gaps over a Quarter of a Century in a Scandinavian Country

Although the Scandinavian countries are often considered to epitomize social democratic governance, Scandinavia’s profound wealth inequalities, seen in relation to the more modest income differences, constitutes a fascinating paradox. Drawing on class theoretical concerns with strategies for reproduction and a Bourdieusian emphasis on class fractions, we explore how class-origin wealth gaps evolved over the past 25 years in Norway, and how they compare to class-origin income gaps. First, we find that class-origin wealth gaps have increased in recent years, whereas income inequalities are fairly persistent among men, and increasing among women. We find that educational attainment is important for channeling income inequality, but that education is less important for understanding wealth gaps. Second, we document differences between people whose family contexts were most highly endowed with economic capital and those who grew up in families that were engaged in cultural fields or the professions. Finally, we highlight how analyses based solely on net worth neglect important ways class origin perpetuates and accelerates wealth inequalities via the acquisition of debt. We argue that recent decades have fostered new instruments for opportunity hoarding that are most successfully used by the sons and daughters of the economic upper class.

Housing, place and populism: Towards a research agenda

This exchange considers the unrecognised interplay between two major political–economic trends shaping contemporary Europe, namely the upward trend in housing-induced inequalities and rising support for populist politics. Europe's housing systems have undergone dramatic transformations in recent decades that are exacerbating housing precarity, wealth inequalities and socio-spatial polarisation. At the same time, European politics has witnessed a growing acceptance of populist political rhetoric, values and policies as populists exploit citizens' economic anxieties and perceived cultural grievances. Yet, existing research overlooks the connections between housing system dynamics, housing precarity and political disaffection. In response, this exchange proposes a new approach – housing discontent – to capture how deepening housing precarity and place inequalities are influencing social attitudes, political values and preferences and resulting in a more polarised contemporary politics.