Dissociable effects of age and Parkinson’s disease on instruction based learning

The cognitive deficits associated with Parkinson’s disease vary across individuals and change across time, with implications for prognosis and treatment. Key outstanding challenges are to define the distinct behavioural characteristics of this disorder and develop diagnostic paradigms that can assess these sensitively in individuals. In a previous study we measured different aspects of attentional control in Parkinson’s disease using an established fMRI switching paradigm 1. We observed no deficits for the aspects of attention the task was designed to examine; instead those with Parkinson’s disease learnt the operational requirements of the task more slowly. We hypothesised that a subset of people with early to mid-stage Parkinson’s might be impaired when encoding rules for performing new tasks. Here, we directly test this hypothesis and investigate whether deficits in instruction-based learning represent a characteristic of Parkinson’s Disease. Seventeen participants with Parkinson’s disease (8 male; mean age: 61.2 years), eighteen older adults (8 male; mean age: 61.3 years) and twenty younger adults (10 males; mean age: 26.7 years) undertook a simple instruction-based learning paradigm in the MRI scanner. They sorted sequences of coloured shapes according to binary discrimination rules that were updated at two-minute intervals. Unlike common reinforcement learning tasks, the rules were unambiguous, being explicitly presented; consequently, there was no requirement to monitor feedback or estimate contingencies. Despite its simplicity, a third of the Parkinson’s group, but only one older adult, showed marked increases in errors, 4SD greater than the worst-performing young adult. The pattern of errors was consistent, reflecting a tendency to misbind discrimination rules. The misbinding behaviour was coupled with reduced frontal, parietal and anterior caudate activity when rules were being encoded, but not when attention was initially oriented to the instruction slides or when discrimination trials were performed. Concomitantly, Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy showed reduced gamma-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) levels within the mid-dorsolateral prefrontal cortices of individuals who made misbinding errors. These results demonstrate, for the first time, that a subset of early to mid-stage people with Parkinson’s have substantial deficits when binding new task rules in working memory. Given the ubiquity of instruction-based learning, these deficits are likely to impede daily living. They will also confound clinical assessment of other cognitive processes. Future work should determine the value of instruction-based learning as a sensitive early marker of cognitive decline and as a measure of responsiveness to therapy in Parkinson disease.

Governmental-Funded Religious Associations and Non-Discrimination Rules: On Immunity and Public Funding

Many religious associations exhibit internal norms that differ from liberal norms and rules. Such norms often directly contradict the non-discrimination norms and rules that are part and parcel of the liberal democracies in which these associations operate. Religious associations often are considered, in both legal and scholarly writings, exempt from at least some of these norms and rules. This tension between broad societal non-discrimination1 rules and the norms of specific religious associations has won the attention of scholars and courts.2 In many such debates, the background assumption is that these religious groups are voluntary associations functioning within a model of separation between religion and state; that is, such associations operate through the free choices of their members and individuals are as free to leave the associations as they were to form them.3 While theorizing about non-discrimination rules and whether they apply to religious associations that are funded via the contributions of their members is of obvious importance, this article examines a distinct problem: that of discrimination within religious associations that are directly supported by democratic governments. Recent research on religion-state relations4 has pointed out that, in many democratic countries, religious associations are funded by the government to a considerable extent. The tension between non-discrimination norms and the presumed rights of the state-funded religious associations to be exempted from such rules, however, is neglected in the literature. Perhaps this is because the most prominent legal cases of this kind were tried at the European Court of Human Rights5 and the U.K. Supreme Court,6 rather than the more conspicuous U.S. Supreme Court. This article asks the following question: in what way, if at all, does receiving governmental funding change the presumed right of religious associations to be exempted from non-discrimination rules? The ‘immunity thesis’—the idea that religious associations enjoy the right to be exempted from non-discrimination rules—is not challenged here: this article argues that if there is such a right to immunity, receiving governmental funding does not necessarily eliminate it. Much depends on how each case maintains the balance between the autonomy of religious associations7 and the protection of individual citizens from discrimination that impacts important civil interests such as access to jobs or high-quality education. Of the suggested variables identified to test this balance, three are internal to the associations’ structure: the centrality of the potentially illiberal norm to the funded religious association; the kind of violation of non-discrimination rules (either internal or external discrimination, see below); and the willingness of the religious association to internalize the cost of the discrimination. Two additional variables that can be used to test the balance of competing social values are external to the association and depend on the political-legal environment in which the association functions: the quantity of funding that the government makes available to the association, and the process by which potentially competing religious associations can become eligible for recognized and funded status. A multivariable ‘test’ is required in order to determine whether and how governmental funded religious associations can still claim immunity when practicing discriminatory norms.

Dissociable Effects of Age and Parkinson’s Disease on Instruction Based Learning

The psychological deficits associated with Parkinson’s disease vary across individuals and change across time, with implications for prognosis and treatment. Key outstanding challenges are to define the distinct behavioural phenotypes of this disorder and develop diagnostic paradigms that can assess these sensitively in individuals. In a previous study we measured different aspects of attentional control in Parkinson’s disease using an established fMRI switching paradigm (Gruszka et al., 2017). We observed no deficits for the aspects of attention the task was designed to examine; instead those with Parkinson’s disease learnt the operational requirements of the task more slowly. We hypothesised that a subset of people with early to mid-stage Parkinson’s might be impaired when encoding rules for performing new tasks. Here, we directly test this hypothesis and investigate whether deficits in instruction based learning represent a potential phenotype. Seventeen participants with Parkinson’s disease (8 male; mean age: 61.2 years), eighteen older adults (8 male; mean age: 61.3 years) and twenty younger adults (10 males; mean age: 26.7 years) undertook a simple instruction based learning paradigm in the MRI scanner. They sorted sequences of coloured shapes according to binary discrimination rules that were updated at two-minute intervals. Unlike common reinforcement learning tasks, the rules were unambiguous, being explicitly presented; consequently, there was no requirement to monitor feedback or estimate contingencies. Despite its simplicity, a third of the Parkinson’s group, but only one older adult, showed marked increases in errors, 4SD greater than the worst-performing young adult. The pattern of errors was consistent, reflecting a tendency to misbind discrimination rules. The misbinding behaviour was coupled with reduced frontal, parietal and anterior caudate activity when rules were being encoded, but not when attention was initially oriented to the instruction slides or when discrimination trials were performed. Concomitantly, Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy showed reduced gamma-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) levels within the mid-dorsolateral prefrontal cortices of individuals who made misbinding errors. These results demonstrate, for the first time, that a subset of early to mid-stage people with Parkinson’s have substantial deficits when binding new task rules in working memory. Given the ubiquity of instruction based learning, these deficits are likely to impede daily living. They will also confound clinical assessment of other psychological processes. Future work should determine the value of instruction based learning as a sensitive early marker of cognitive decline and as a measure of responsiveness to therapy in Parkinson disease.

Tax autonomy and non-discrimination rules in the era of conflicting political goals: international and Polish perspective

The aim of this paper is to discuss non-discrimination rules concerning tax matters on the example of Polish case analysis. Author wishes to conduct research work in broader context. In this regard it is necessary to outline the current globalized world in which tax systems of states operate, discuss the concept of state’s tax autonomy and examine how the role of a state on tax matters has recently changed. Subsequently the non-discrimination rules from an international perspective shall be presented. It is also important to answer the question about the impact of those rules on state’s tax autonomy and about the role which they could play in reconciling political goals in the current globalized world. All of this contexts enables to examine non-discrimination rules from Polish perspective. Author introduces all of non-discrimination rules concerning taxation in Polish legal order, accordingly presents and studies Polish case law regarding those rules. Finally, overall conclusions of the research work are introduced which are intended to discuss the role, significance and the future of non-discrimination rules in contemporary globalized world, both from international and Polish perspective.

Narratives of Social Inclusion in the Context of Roma School Segregation

Despite a series of judgements from the European Court of Human Rights and the enactment of the EU Racial Equality Directive, the educational segregation of Roma pupils persists in several European states. State action plans submitted pursuant to the European Framework for Roma Integration rarely provide clear targets and do not commit to inclusive schooling. Taking education as a principle indicator of social inclusion, this article identifies that structural inequality and entrenched discriminatory attitudes are the main obstacles to Roma inclusion. This can only be addressed through the diffusion of legal and social norms that mainstream equality. Focusing on the legal obligations, it is argued that the European Commission must be more decisive and effective in the enforcement of non-discrimination rules. A closer dialogue between the European Court of Human Rights and the EU institutions, grounded in a non-targeted social inclusion frame, could provide a platform for European consensus which may help to secure meaningful change.