The Struggle between Tradition and Modernity in the Early Twentieth Century of the Tibetan Buddhist World

Hamugetu’s paper discusses the relationships between tradition and modernity through an examination of the Seventh lCang-skya’s activities in China and Inner Mongolia in the late Qing period. Articulating a modern ideology of the separation of church and state, he sought to protect the interests of Tibetan Buddhist society from both the Chinese government and Inner Mongolian nationalists through accommodating both forces, while simultaneously seeking to reform Tibetan Buddhism in Inner Mongolia along modernist lines. Striving to protect the interests of the Buddhist community, the struggle of the Seventh lCang-skya between the system of jasak lamas and the separation of religion and state is typical of the issues facing the Tibetan Buddhist world in the early 20th century.

Relasi Kuasa Ulama Sufi dan Negara dalam Kultur-Budaya Politik Indonesia

This article examines the critical role of the dimensions of Sufism represented by Sufi ulama in the public sphere (political power) state, either directly or indirectly. In Indonesian historicity, the relationship between Sufi ulama and the state has lasted centuries, even to the modern era. In political theory, there is a "descending of power" and an "ascending of power". Descending power is identical to religiopolitical power, namely power based on religion by placing Sufi scholars as representatives of the people and above the king's power. Power is interpreted as a political system that separates religion and state. This problematic relationship places Sufi ulama in a transcendent way to become part of the state both directly and remotely. Examples of ascending of power are shown clearly through the figures of Habib Lutfi bin Yahya and KH. Maimun Zubair (Mbah Maimun) is in the midst of a potential nation clash during the 2019 presidential election process. This study is based on secondary sources in related references and primary sources. The primary source is based on the thoughts of a Sufi teacher and the murshid of Majelis Shalawat Kubro, Shalawat Muhammad, and Shalawat Adlimiyah in East Java.

Religion-State Relations in Europe

Europe is often taken to represent a global exception in matters of religion and secularity and some argue that much of the reason for this lies in the way religion-state relations are arranged. This chapter assesses these and related claims while summarily tracing the character, development, and impact of different relationship patterns in Europe as both ‘religion’ and ‘state’ have undergone massive change over the last 500 years. None of the fifty-odd current states of Europe meet any strict standard of religion–state separation; it can be argued nonetheless that the emergent and identifiable common European model is largely consistent with liberal egalitarian values. Key concepts are introduced: secular state, confessional state, religious state, religious establishment, and separationism.

Nordic Europe

This chapter examines religious change in the five Nordic countries: Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Finland, and Iceland. Immigration came later to these countries than in many other parts of Europe, but it has transformed Sweden, Norway, and Denmark into relatively diverse societies; Finland and Iceland remain more homogeneous. In spite of these differences, the religious outlook is changing right across the Nordic countries with a decline in membership in the majority churches, falling indices of religious belief and practice in most of them, growing numbers of people who place themselves outside the faith communities, and multiplying forms of spirituality that lie beyond religious institutions altogether. The chapter addresses the implications that these changes have for religion and state relations, and the role of religion in politics, the media, and civil society.

Germany

This chapter examines the relationship between religion and the state in modern Germany, in particular the church–state regime from German unification onwards, and church involvement in politics at a variety of levels. It contrasts the ‘stubbornness’ of the ‘partnership model’ between church and state with a variety of policy changes, themselves the result of an increasingly fluid context of religious pluralization which puts pressure on the church–state relationship. The chapter aims to capture this tension, both from a historical perspective and in light of current challenges. The first section delineates the historical origins of the German model and its relevance for the relationship between the majority churches (Protestant and Catholic) and democratization. The second section addresses aspects of religion and state at particular levels of interaction: the polity (the constitution), and policies (the influence of churches in public education, and the governance of religious diversity—particularly Muslim rights).

British Islam and English Law

British Islam and English Law presents a novel argument about the nature and place of groups in society. The encounter with Islam has led English law to tread a line between two theoretical models, liberal individualism and multiculturalism, competing for dominance over the law of organised religion. This philosophical rivalry has generated a set of seemingly intractable conflicts between individual and community, religion and state, nation and culture. This book resurrects the long-buried theory of classical pluralism to address and resolve these tensions. Applying this to five understudied institutions that give structure and form to British Islam – banks, charities, schools, elections, clans – it outlines and justifies the reforms that would optimise the relationship between law and religion. Unflinching and unorthodox, this book places law and theory in context, employs innovative methods such as nudge theory and applied history, and provides detailed answers to hard questions about British Islam.

The Idea of Religious Minorities and Social Cohesion in India’s Constitution: Reflections on the Indian Experience

India has many religious groups, of which Hindus are a majority, and Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists and Jains are minorities. India’s Constitution, adopted in 1950, departed from the existing norms of secularism in Europe and elsewhere, which suggested a strict separation of religion and state. Moreover, freedom of religion is a Fundamental Right guaranteed under the Indian Constitution. With its distinct model of secularism and special provisions for religious minorities, India’s social cohesion arrangement needs special attention. On one hand, the distinct understanding of secularism in the Indian context has led to the advancement of religious pluralism. At the same time, it has invited criticism for selective intervention in the affairs of religious communities from governments in power. The selective intervention has challenged the exclusivity of Indian secularism. This article evaluates the constitutional and theoretical ideas underlying provisions on religious minorities and freedom of religion enshrined in the Indian Constitution. It appraises the idea of religious minorities enshrined in the constitution through a discussion of the process that shaped the idea. The article reflects on the Indian experience of managing the rights of religious minorities and freedom of religion. By analysing a landmark judgement related to freedom of religion and the rights of religious minorities, the article evaluates whether the Indian Constitution advances a model of social cohesion by balancing freedom of religion and the rights of religious minorities or remains ineffective in achieving the same.

Mongolia stage decoration in the socialist period

До появления профессиональных театров в Монголии театрализованные представления, мистерии и гимны, танец Цам, церемонии в честь Майтрейи, имеющие религиозное назначение, исполнялись в монастырях Их Хурээ, Эрдэнэ Зуу и некоторых крупных монгольских храмах. Результаты данного исследования показывают, что оформление религиозных и государственных театрализованных церемоний было разработано художниками и мастерами декоративно-прикладного искусства и предназначено для демонстрации на подмостках и на площади. Все типы мистерии были основой для развития декоративно-прикладного искусства, а именно для создания одежды и аксессуаров с активным использованием дерева, кости, камня, металла, кожи, бумаги и войлока. Таким образом, традиционные народные промыслы, такие как шитье, вышивание, ткачество, аппликации, резьба, тиснение и роспись, использовались для изготовления костюмов для Цама, масок и реквизита. Этот факт доказывает, что все виды декоративно-прикладного искусства, связанные с театрализованными церемониями, являются традиционным художественным творчеством. После Народной революции 1921 года в Монголии начало развиваться современное театральное искусство, которое создало условия для развития различных творческих профессий, связанных со сценой. Prior to the establishment of professional theaters in Mongolia, operas and hymns were performed at the Ikh Khuree, and Tsam dances and Maitreya ceremonies were held at the Ikh Khuree, Erdene Zuu, and some major Mongolian temples. The results of the research show that these works of art, religion, and state ceremonies were designed by artists and craftsmen who were trained in arts and crafts, and were designed to be placed on stage and in the square, and to create clothes and accessories. For example, using wood, bone, stone, metal, leather, paper, and felt, traditional folk crafts such as sewing, stitching, weaving, gluing, carving, embossing, weaving, and painting are used to make Tsam costumes, masks, and stage set. The fact that the Mongolian stage design is a traditional art activity proves that it was a traditional art activity. After the People's Revolution of 1921, Mongolians established modern theatrical art, which created conditions for the development of various professions created on stage. An integral part of the development of the theater is the stage design and decoration. Stage decoration can be considered as a collective work of playwrights, directors, actors, composers and stage artists.

The Vetting Impasse: The ‘Churches Law’ and Kenya’s Religious Regulation Debate

Over the last decade Kenya has been seeing a lively debate over the regulation of its ever-expanding religious market and demands for a new ‘Churches Law’. Tales of hypocritical abuse of power and of emerging cults coalesced with security concerns regarding religious extremism, leading to the proposal to tighten regulatory control over the religious market, which expanded rapidly since the 1990s. Despite widespread recognition of the problem, new legislative steps have failed so far, notably even leading to a controversial 2014 moratorium on the registration of new religious denominations. This article analyzes this legislative impasse and offers an explanation in terms of the ambivalent yet symbiotic relations between religion and state in Kenya.