HOMEOSTASIS AND COMPENSATION AS LINGUISTIC PHENOMENA (COMPETITION OF ASPECT AND TENSE ON THE EXAMPLE OF SLAVIC LANGUAGES WITH SPECIAL REGARD TO POLISH)

The present paper deals with two universal linguistic phenomena, homeostasis and compensation. The author examines their function in relation to two categories, aspect and tense in the history of the Slavic languages. It is beyond doubt that one of the most important categories of the Slavic verb is aspect the origin of which may lie in the Proto-Indo-European language. The effects of its emergence as a verbal category were far-reaching and can be well traced in the history of the most Slavic languages. Taking a close look to the linguistic data, it seems quite obvious that the category of tense and aspect were closely related and did interact, creating different patterns in modern Slavic languages. A certain competition between the category of aspect and that of tense can already be observed in Old Slavic and also in Old Russian and Old Polish where tenses like the aorist and the imperfect were becoming increasingly obsolete. The perfect, on the contrary, has gained ground, while the pluperfect has almost completely fallen into disuse. In the further development, the aspectual opposition also extended to the future tenses thereby affecting the entire tense system. This scenario took place everywhere in the East and West Slavic languages with some nuanced differences. Consequently, in the aspect-tense system of the modern East and West Slavic languages the tendency of the category of aspect to prevail over the category of tense together with the gradual decline in the number of tenses seems to be quite clear. The South Slavic languages, however, have taken a slightly different path showing perhaps the most complex picture. Although the Serbian and Croatian languages have preserved the old tenses, their use is rather limited. In terms of their aspectual development, these languages are getting closer and closer to the Eastern and Western Slavic language groups. In contrast, in Bulgarian and Macedonian one can see an intricate interplay of the aspectual system and the developed tense system. In the case of the change of the different Slavic languages, the phenomenon of linguistic compensation can be observed in all cases on the example of aspect and tense categories as the main means of striving to maintain linguistic homeostasis. Keywords: linguistic homeostasis, compensation, aspect, tense, Old Slavic, Slavic languages, Polish

Fallacies in Judicial Interpretation

<p>This thesis concerns fallacies in judicial interpretation. The central contention of this thesis is that judges commit certain fallacies when interpreting language and that it is possible to detect such fallacies and arrive at alternative, non-fallacious interpretations when they occur. An instance of judicial interpretation is fallacious when it takes into account an irrelevant consideration and it is most likely that a different result would have been reached if that consideration had been omitted, or when it omits a relevant consideration and it is most likely that a different result would have been reached if that relevant consideration had been taken into account. The thesis identifies two specific fallacies which involve judges introducing an irrelevant consideration and usually involve judges omitting relevant considerations. These two fallacies are errors of categorisation, and occur when judges make an interpretive decision on the basis of the irrelevant consideration of the verbal category to which an item can be assigned rather than the relevant considerations which determine the legal category to which it should be assigned. These two fallacies are detected by assessing whether an instance of interpretation is merely based on the verbal category to which an item can be assigned or whether it is justified by relevant considerations. Alternative, non-fallacious interpretations are arrived at by introducing any relevant considerations and omitting any irrelevant considerations.</p>

Fallacies in Judicial Interpretation

<p>This thesis concerns fallacies in judicial interpretation. The central contention of this thesis is that judges commit certain fallacies when interpreting language and that it is possible to detect such fallacies and arrive at alternative, non-fallacious interpretations when they occur. An instance of judicial interpretation is fallacious when it takes into account an irrelevant consideration and it is most likely that a different result would have been reached if that consideration had been omitted, or when it omits a relevant consideration and it is most likely that a different result would have been reached if that relevant consideration had been taken into account. The thesis identifies two specific fallacies which involve judges introducing an irrelevant consideration and usually involve judges omitting relevant considerations. These two fallacies are errors of categorisation, and occur when judges make an interpretive decision on the basis of the irrelevant consideration of the verbal category to which an item can be assigned rather than the relevant considerations which determine the legal category to which it should be assigned. These two fallacies are detected by assessing whether an instance of interpretation is merely based on the verbal category to which an item can be assigned or whether it is justified by relevant considerations. Alternative, non-fallacious interpretations are arrived at by introducing any relevant considerations and omitting any irrelevant considerations.</p>

THE EXPRESSION OF GENERAL NEGATION IN BULGARIAN AND GERMAN THROUGH THE PERSPECTIVE OF CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS

The object of analysis in the present study are some characteristic features of the linguistic means expressing negation (and in particular – general negation) in two unrelated languages – Bulgarian and German. The paper presents a brief outline of the basic concepts of negation as a linguistic phenomenon, and a contrastive study of the specific linguistic means of its verbalization in the two languages, focusing on the cases of interlingual asymmetry. The conclusions are drawn on the basis of rich taxonomic material, excerpted from literary texts translated from German into Bulgarian and from Bulgarian into German. A number of arguments are presented in support of the thesis that in the contemporary Bulgarian language there is a process of grammaticalization of the verbal negation within an independent morphological verbal category, called existential status of the action (result of an action) or a state. In contrast, there is no single formal indicator of negation in German; there are no manifestations of synthetic forms, as for example – the Bulgarian auxiliary verbs няма and недей, and the degree of separability of the negative markers is high. In the final part of the study a conclusion is drawn that the linguistic concepts of general negation and status negation are not identical. The first one is semantic-syntactic and encompasses the cases in which the action of negation refers to the whole sentence. As for the status negation in the Bulgarian language, it means absence (negation) of an action (result of an action) or a state and is expressed morphologically – on the level of the verb word formation.

The Concept of Inchoativity in Works of Latin Grammarians

This article touches upon the idea of inchoativity in the works of Roman grammarians. It aims to observe the development of the usage of the term inchoativus in the Roman grammatical tradition. The study is based on Latin grammatical treatises dating back to the 3rd-7th centuries A.D., the most part of which was published by Heinrich Keil in the second half of the 19th century. Besides Keil's edition, the article refers to recent editions of grammatical treatises. The study was conducted using three digital textual databases including Corpora Corporum, Digital Library of Latin Texts, and PHI Latin Texts. The Latin adjective inchoativus (or inco-hativus, а less common spelling), which literally means ‘inceptive, initial', is attested in three meanings and is used in collocations concerning verbal tense, verbal inflection, and conjunctions respectively. The first two usages were widespread and refer to verbal categories, while the last one is attested only once. The article is divided into two parts. The first one discusses collocations with types of verbal tense such as gradus ‘grade, degree', distantia ‘distance', differentia ‘difference', discertio ‘difference', species ‘aspect' and tempus ‘tense' itself. The second part deals with Roman grammatical categories including forma ‘form', qualitas ‘quality', species ‘aspect', genus ‘voice', figura ‘figure'. The study draws a conclusion that the adjective inchoativus/incohativus is used with categories of tense and aspect only in the works of early grammarians including Probus, Sacerdos, Diomedes, Charisius, and PseudoProbus. However, these grammarians also mention this term with regard to verb forms ending in -sco. Mostly, inchoativity is bound with the Roman verbal category of forma, which can be observed in the works by Dositheus, Phocas, Eutyches, Audax, Pseudo-Victorinus, Donatus and his commentators Sergius, Servius, Pompeius, Cledonius, and Julian of Toledo, and species (Macrobius, Priscian), which is not to be confused with the species of tense mentioned above. Pseudo-Asper is the only Roman grammarian who exceptionally puts inchoativity into the category of figura and spells inchoativus as incohativus. If the category of forma is absent, inchoativity is reckoned to be a verbal quality (Diomedes). Inchoativity is included into the category of voice in case voice is regarded as a subcategory of quality (Sacerdos, Pseudo-Probus, and Cledonius). In respect to forms ending in -sco, inchoativity is a manifestation of the so-called grammatical category of quality.

Development of aspect markers in Arandic languages, with notes on associated motion

Languages of the Arandic subgroup of Pama-Nyungan languages of Australia have developed markers of aspect from a variety of sources, including verb phrases with stance auxiliaries and reduplicated forms. Other origins involve nominalised verb forms and the refunctionalisation of tense suffixes. Some unusual diachronic developments have to do with interactions between aspectual markers and those of the highly developed verbal category of associated motion. There are shifts in both directions – from aspectual to associated motion values as well as extension of associated motion to aspectual meanings. All the posited diachronic changes are inferred by means of reconstruction, since there is virtually no corpus of documents from which changes in real time can be traced.

Dynamic Form

This book traces how intermedial experiments shape modernist texts from 1900 to 1950. Considering literature alongside painting, sculpture, photography, and film, the book examines how these arts inflect narrative movement, contribute to plot events, and configure poetry and memoir. As forms and formal theories cross from one artistic realm to another and back again, modernism shows its obsession with form—and even at times becomes a formalism itself—but as the book states, that form is far more dynamic than we have given it credit for. Form fulfills such various functions that we cannot characterize it as a mere container for content or matter, nor can we consign it to ignominy opposite historicism or political commitment. As a structure or scheme that enables action, form in modernism can be plastic, protean, or even fragile, and works by Henry James, Virginia Woolf, Mina Loy, Evelyn Waugh, and Gertrude Stein demonstrate the range of form's operations. Revising three major formal paradigms—spatial form, pure form, and formlessness—and recasting the history of modernist form, the book proposes an understanding of form as a verbal category, as a kind of doing. It thus opens new possibilities for conversation between modernist studies and formalist studies and simultaneously promotes a capacious rethinking of the convergence between literary modernism and creative work in other media.

Efficacy of two dosing schemes of a liquid containing ivy leaves dry extract EA 575 versus placebo in the treatment of acute bronchitis in adults

IntroductionThe results of a clinical trial published in 2016 showed the efficacy of ivy leaves dry extract EA 575 versus placebo in the treatment of patients suffering from acute cough. A clinical trial with a very similar design was conducted to not only show the reproducibility of former results but also to investigate an alternative dosing scheme.MethodsThis randomised, placebo-controlled, multicentre, double-blind clinical trial was conducted to assess the efficacy and safety of a liquid containing EA 575 in the treatment of acute bronchitis. A total of 209 patients were treated with a liquid containing EA 575 as an active investigational medicinal product (verum) either two (7.5 mL) or three (5 mL) times a day or placebo in the respective dosing scheme for 1 week, with a total observational period of 2 weeks. The primary efficacy outcome was a change in Bronchitis Severity Score (BSS) of the pooled placebo and pooled verum groups between visits 1 and 5. Additional secondary parameters were assessed, including, for example, change in cough severity as assessed by a visual analogue scale (VAS) and the Verbal Category Descriptive (VCD) score.ResultsSuperiority of verum over placebo was during and at the end of treatment, as measured by BSS. No significant differences between the dosing schemes were observed. VCD scores and VAS measurements also showed the superiority of verum over placebo.ConclusionThe existing data on the clinical efficacy of EA 575 were confirmed. Furthermore, a new dosing scheme was shown to be noninferior to the currently used scheme while maintaining the safety and tolerability of the well-established cough liquid containing EA 575.

B-71 The Effect of Bilingualism on Verbal and Design Fluency Performance in Traumatic Brain Injury Survivors and Healthy Adults

Objective Traumatic brain injury (TBI) impacts neurocognitive function. Language is also known to influence test performances. We examined the relationship between TBI and monolingualism/bilingualism on verbal and design fluency tests. Method The sample (N = 74) consisted of 33 healthy controls (18 bilingual; 15 monolingual), 15 acute TBI participants (6 bilingual; 9 monolingual), and 26 chronic TBI participants (15 bilingual; 11 monolingual). Acute TBI participants were tested 6 months post-injury and chronic TBI participants were tested 12 months or more post-injury. The Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System Letter Fluency (DKEFS-LF), Category Fluency (DKEFS-CF), Category Switching Fluency (DKEFS-CSF), and global verbal fluency composite (DKEFS-GVF) scores assessed verbal fluency; DKEFS fill-dots (DKEFS-FD), empty dots (DFEFS-ED), dot switching (DKEFS-DS), and global design fluency composite (DKEFS-GDF) scores assessed design fluency; and global verbal and non-verbal fluency composite (DKEFS-GF) assessed overall fluency. 3X2 ANOVAs were conducted to evaluate the effect of monolingualism/bilingualism on fluency performance in TBI and controls. Results The groups (control and TBI groups) differed for DKEFS-LF, p = .048, ηp² = .09, DKEFS-CF, p = .000, ηp² = .21, DKEFS-GVF, p = .004, ηp² = .15, DKEFS-ED, p = .008, ηp² = .13, DKEFS-GF, p = .001, ηp² = .20, with controls outperforming TBI groups on the DKEFS-CF, DKEFS-GVF, and DKEFS-GF. Furthermore, controls outperformed acute TBI participants on the DKEFS-LF and DKEFS-ED. Main effects were found for bilingualism/monolingualism on DKEFS-CF, p = .035, ηp² = .06, with bilinguals outperforming monolinguals. No interactions were found. Conclusion The TBI group had poor verbal and design fluency in contrast controls. Unexpectedly, bilinguals outperformed monolinguals on a task of verbal category fluency. Revealing that in the present study bilinguals have better semantic verbal fluency abilities.