Co znaczy i co oznacza śmiech? O metonimicznych źródłach wieloznaczności czasownika śmiać się

Artykuł wpisuje się w nurt badań nad walencją i semantyką polskich czasowników nawiązujących do modelu struktur predykatowo-argumentowych autorstwa Stanisława Karolaka. Głównymi zadaniami pracy są repartycja i opis znaczeń polisemicznego kształtu językowego śmiać się. Zebrany materiał badawczy pokazuje, że predykat ten konstytuuje w polszczyźnie kilka różnych konstrukcji składniowych: [ktoś] śmieje się, że_, [ktoś] śmieje się z [kimś] z tego, że_, [ktoś] śmieje się do [kogoś], [ktoś] śmieje się z [siebie], że_, [ktoś] śmieje się z [kogoś/czyjegoś], że_, [ktoś] śmieje się z tego, że_, których struktury formalne, semantyczne i pojęciowe są rezultatem rozszerzeń metonimicznych opartych na mechanizmie polisemii radialno-łańcuchowej. Autorka podejmuje analizę procesów metonimicznych kształtujących gniazdo leksykalne utworzone wokół czasownika śmiać się oraz zwraca uwagę na kwestię, jak za ich sprawą do wtórnych znaczeń tego leksemu przenikają treści pochodzące ze sfery kultury. What does laughter mean from a linguistic and extralinguistic perspective? On metonymy as a source of polysemy of the Polish verb śmiać się (to laugh) Summary: This paper investigates the main syntactic and semantic features of the Polish polysemous predicate śmiać się (to laugh) within the theory of Semantic Syntax (Karolak 1984, 2002). The analysis shows that the verb forms several predicate-argument structures, e.g.: 1) [ktoś] śmieje się z [kimś] z tego, że_, ([somebody] laughs with [somebody] + SENT), 2) [ktoś] śmieje się do [kogoś] ([somebody] laughs to [somebody], which means ‘to grin’), 3) [ktoś] śmieje się z [siebie], że_ ([somebody] laughs at [oneself] + SENT), 4) [ktoś] śmieje się z [kogoś/czyjegoś], że_ ([somebody] laughs at [somebody / something that belongs to somebody] + SENT), which are different in terms of the number, status and semantic roles of their arguments, reference and type of humour incorporated in the act of laughter. The source of this variety of meanings of the predicate śmiać się (to laugh) lies in metonymic extensions which fit into the pattern of radial and chain polysemy. The article also outlines how the semiotic (cultural) meaning of laughter is reflected in the semantics of the verb śmiać się (to laugh) through the mechanism of metonymy.

ВЛАДКО МУРДАРОВ. РАЗНИ СЪВЕТИ ЗА ГЛАГОЛИТЕ / VLADKO MURDAROV. MISCELANEOUS TIPS ABOUT VERBS

The review is dedicated to the new book of Prof. Vladko Murdarov, DSc „Miscelaneous tips about verbs“, which draws attention to the hesitations and mistakes that Bulgarians most often make with verbs in their oral speech. Examples related to the mispronunciation of verbs and verb forms, as well as the expressions in which they are included, are selected, and the possible reasons for the mistakes are indicated. An assessment of a number of new phenomena in our language, manifested in public speech, which are waiting for the most correct decision, is also given.

GRAMMATICALIZATION OF CONTRACTED COMPOUND VERB FORMS IN MALOKARACHKINSKIJ DIALECT OF CHUVASH LANGUAGE

Глаголы jar/jer ‘пускать’, jol ‘остаться’, il ‘брать’ и yk ‘падать’ в малокарачкинском говоре чувашского языка могут образовывать сложные глаголы — конструкции, состоящие из двух глагольных форм, но описывающие единую ситуацию. В малокарачкинском говоре в таких конструкциях происходит фонетическое явление стяжения: xəra za yk r ë (испугаться CV_SIM падать PST 3SG)> xəra z=yk r ë (испугаться CV_SIM падать PST 3SG) ‘упал(а)’. Стяжённые формы сложных глаголов отличаются от других сложноглагольных конструкций не только фонетически (выпадение последнего гласного деепричастия на -sa, выпадение начального j вершины, чередование гласных в основе вершины jar/jer ‘пускать’), но и по ряду морфосинтаксических признаков (место присоединения аффиксов каузатива и аттенуатива). На то, что появление стяжённых форм — это часть процесса грамматикализации сложных глаголов, указывает и то, что глаголы, не образующие стяжённых форм, но обладающие в составе сложноглагольной конструкции грамматическим значением, так же претерпевают фонетические изменения. В статье разобран пример глагола kaj ‘уходить’, у которого в сложноглагольной конструкции, как показал эксперимент с чтением диалектного текста, часто озвончается первый согласный. Это сближает глагол kaj ‘уходить’ с аффиксами, согласные в которых в малокарачкинском говоре обычно озвончаются в интервокальной позиции. В статье также рассматриваются семантические свойства глагола yk ‘падать’, образующего стяжённые сложные глаголы. Несмотря на общее грамматическое значение этого глагола в составе сложногагольной конструкции — вхождения в состояние или процесс, глагол yk ‘падать’ сохраняет некоторые элементы своего лексического значения, которые влияют на его сочетаемость как вершины сложного глагола: вхождение в состояние или процесс может быть только мгновенным, конструкции с пунктивными глаголами приобретают значение неожиданности и/или интенсивности, глаголы разрушения без семантики падения и глаголы с семантикой увеличения и повышения не могут сочетаться с yk ‘падать’. Материалы для статьи были собраны автором в экспедициях в село Малое Карачкино Чувашской Республики, кроме того используются примеры из экспедиционного корпуса и из литературы, приводятся некоторые сравнения с литературным чувашским языком. The article presents the results of the research of the contracted forms of compound verbs in Malokarachkinskij dialect of Chuvash language. Four verbs jar/jer ‘let’, jol ‘remain’, il ‘take’ and yk ‘fall’ can be the heads of the contracted forms of compound verbs. These forms differ from the full ones not only phonetically but also morphologically. At the same time, certain semantic features of these four verbs remain present even when they become heads of the compound verb constructions, thus restraining their distribution.

CODE-SWITCHING IN THE CONTEXT OF UDMURT-RUSSIAN BILINGUALISM (BASED ON VERB FORMS)

On the one hand, code switching as a linguistic phenomenon is a speaker’s transition from one language to another in the process of verbal communication, depending on the conditions of communication; on the other hand, it is the interaction of structures and structural elements of two languages. Its implementation in speech is due to a number of reasons: extralinguistic (external), intralinguistic (linguistic proper), psycho-physiological. The main purpose of this article is to identify the structural types as well as lexical and semantic characteristics of code switching, based on verb forms in the speech of native Udmurt speakers in the context of Udmurt-Russian bilingualism. In the course of the study, it was found that, in contrast to the nominal parts of speech, verbs are less susceptible to the phenomenon of code-switching. The matrix (Udmurt) language is characterized by three types of inclusion of verb forms from the donor language: a) the use of an auxiliary verb (light verb strategy); b) indirect insertion, characterized by the attachment of special morphological markers; c) semantic borrowing. In terms of lexical and semantic characteristics, the phenomenon of code switching in the context of Udmurt-Russian bilingualism is most typical of verbal units reflecting the practical and spiritual (mental, emotional, volitional) activities of people. This proves the important role of the psycho-physiological factor in the emergence of switching codes.

Possible traces of Finnic influence in Latvian subdialect phonetics and morphology

This article discusses areas observed on geolinguistic maps showing Finnic or Finnic-like features in Latvian subdialects possibly resulting from Finnic influence. The Latvian dialect material analysed for this study shows that several such areas can be identified based on their phonetics and morphology: the Livonic dialect, the Selonic subdialects, certain Selonic subdialects on both banks of the Daugava River, certain subdialects in the former Leivu territory in northeastern Latvia near Alūksne and Gulbene, and a few subdialects in Zemgale near Bauska and Vecsaule where the Krevin Votians were settled. The shortening of word endings and generalisation of third-person verb forms is also quite regularly encountered in the subdialects spoken around Preiļi in Latgale. The least amount of language material is available about the Ludza Estonians or Lutsis who lived in eastern Latgale where their influence is seen in the tone system of the local subdialects. Kokkuvõte. Anna Stafecka: Läänemeresoome mõju võimalikud jäljed läti murrakute foneetikas ja morfoloogias. Artikkel käsitleb läänemeresoome ja läänemeresoomepäraste joonte maa-alalist levikut läti murretes. Läti murdeainestik, mida on selle uurimuse jaoks analüüsitud, näitab, et foneetilise ja morfoloogilise eripära põhjal on võimalik määratleda mitu sellist mõjuala: liivipärased murded, teatud seeli murrakud Daugava jõe mõlemal kaldal, teatud Kirde-Läti Alūksne ja Gulbene ümbruse murrakud ajaloolisel leivu alal ning mõned semgali murrakud Bauska ja Vecsaule lähistel, kus kunagi elasid kreevini vadjalased. Sõnalõppude lühenemist ja kolmanda isiku verbivormide üldistumist on üsna regulaarselt märgitud ka Latgales Preiļi ümbruse murrakutes. Vähem on selliseid andmeid Ida-Latgalest Ludza eestlaste ehk lutside kunagistelt asualadelt. Siiski on seal lutsi mõju nähtav kohalike murrakute toonisüsteemis.

Functional Category of Aspectuality in the Russian And English Languages

This article studies functional and semantic Tense/Aspect complexes in Russian and English, focusing on their similarities and differences. In Russian, Tense-Aspect meanings of the verb forms correlate with the semantic components of Aktionsart, while in English both Imperfective and Perfective aspects of the verb semantics are realized by the constituent category of Tense/Aspect. The inner asymmetry of the verb forms and meanings is acknowledged for each of the contrastive languages, especially for the two languages compared. The material of the study is retrieved from grammar books and manuals and from literary text samples, principally concerns the use of Tense/Aspect forms of the Russian verb and the forms of the English Perfect. The novelty impact of the study is determined by focusing on the irregularity of the aspectual meanings of English Perfect forms and Tense/Aspect forms of the Russian verb, whereas they are mostly due to lexical meanings of the verbs influenced by intralinguistic specificities of the semantics of lexical indicators as well as mechanisms of communication on the whole. Aspectual meanings both for the Perfective and Imperfective Aspect in languages under comparison used to make up lexical and grammatical aspectual categorical complexes. In terms of Aspect and Tense, peculiarities are found as functional and semantic ones, highly dependent on the situation and context of communication, thus involving extralinguistic factors which also concern the extralinguistic environment of Tense/Aspect verbal forms in use. The comparison of functions and the semantics of Aspect and Aktionsart in the Russian language with those of English Perfect asymmetry is proved to emerge, being caused by cross-linguistic structural and typological differences, particularly, the existence or not the similar forms, their varying semantic load, analytical or synthetic tendencies and others. The asymmetry is especially vividly seen translation and lexicographic field to compose varying kinds of bilingual dictionaries.

Element of Politeness in Intercultural Communication: The Case Study of Japanese and Malaysian Tourists

The number of Japanese tourists visiting Malaysia has consistently ranked in the top ten over the last 20 years. Japan has been the country of choice for Malaysian tourists over the previous ten years. It is, therefore, crucial that tourism communication in the cross-cultural context between Malaysia and Japan is used as a reference to improve the cross-cultural communication skills of the tourism employees involved. This article discusses the external structure of Japanese conversation between native Japanese speakers and Malaysian tourist guides and native Malay speakers with Japanese tourist guides. This study is qualitative and uses the discourse analysis approach. A total of four conversation sessions in the form of Free Independent Travel (FIT) tourism were held in Malacca and Tokyo. The conversations were recorded, and the researchers also made notes throughout the conversation to see the sentence structures and non-linguistic elements to complete the data. The recording was then transcribed and encoded before being analysed. Only the conversations by tourist guides were analysed and included in the contents of this article as the focus of the study is more on the external form and politeness of the Japanese language used by Malaysian and Japanese tourist guides in demonstrating solidarity and similarities in the context of cross-cultural conversation. Data analysis shows many similarities in the selection of vocabulary and specific verb forms by Japanese and Malaysian tourist guides to show courtesy and friendliness in the conversation. This proves that Japanese language skills by Malaysian tourist guides are almost on par with Japanese tourist guides. Malaysian tourist guides also have a vast knowledge of the culture and nature of the Japanese language.

Topiks im Deutschen und Italienischen

The aim of this paper is i) to investigate the distribution of different topic types in the highest portion (found above valutative adverbs such as glücklicherweise and leider, Cinque 1999) of the German Mittelfeld, i. e. the clause portion found between the finite and non-finite verb forms (Satzklammer), and ii) to compare it with the distribution of topics within the Italian left periphery, i. e. the area found above the finite verb where operators, focalised and topicalised constructions are hosted (Rizzi 1997; Benincà 1988, 2001). Based on a corpus of written and oral German data collected through the DeReKO and the FOLK Databases, we show that in German i) in both written and oral examples a single topic belonging to all topic classes can appear in the highest portion of the Mittelfeld (as proposed by Frascarelli/Hinterhölzl 2007), ii) and that multiple topics are restricted to written texts and appear with the fixed order “Aboutness Topic > Familiar Topic; Aboutness Topic > Contrast Topic”. We compare the distribution of topics above valutative adverbs in German with the distribution of topics in the Italian left periphery. We show that the two languages share the fact that multiple topics are possible, with the difference that i) three topics can appear in the Italian left periphery in the order Aboutness Topic > Contrast Topic > Familiar Topic whereas only sequences of two topics are attested in German; ii) the sentence-initial position functions as an “extra” position for topics in German but not in Italian due to the V2 nature of the former language; iii) the presence of multiple topics in the left periphery is restricted to oral or informal texts in Italian and it is a typical trait of colloquial/informal language, whereas the availability of multiple topics in the German Mittefeld is restricted to written/formal texts and can thus be seen as a written/formal trait.

The impact of analogical effects and social factors on the spelling of partially homophonous verb forms in informal social media writing

The present study examines unintentional spelling errors on past participles produced by Flemish teenagers in private online writing. Previous psycholinguistic research on verb spelling errors in Dutch mainly focused on identical homophones (Bosman 2005; Frisson & Sandra 2002; Sandra et al. 1999). The present study, however, deals with past participles that are only partially homophonous with other forms in the inflectional paradigm and investigates whether the spelling of these verbs is affected by whole-word frequency, paradigmatic and bigram support for the correct spelling and the token frequency of the past participles’ morphological family. The error rates reflect the effect of both paradigmatic and bigram support. Moreover, the unique database makes it possible to analyze the impact of three social factors (Gender, Educational track and Age). Our results reveal an effect on the error rates of all social variables. Finally, these social factors do not interact with paradigmatic and bigram support.