‘How Do You Feel About the Language That You Use?'

Scots is one of three indigenous languages in Scotland, alongside English and Gaelic. In recent History, it was considered ‘slang', or ‘bad English'. Following legislative and policy changes, Scots is now recognized as a language and is recognized as a valuable part of the cultural heritage and lived experience of many who reside in Scotland. Further, in 2014, the Scots Language Award was introduced, and Scots is now taught in some schools. This chapter outlines a school-university research partnership that aimed to investigate the influence of teaching Scots on pupils' self-esteem and wider achievement. Using Participatory Action Research and creative arts to explore attitudes to Scots in school, the research highlighted the transformative power of home language (Scots) education.

The Use of Creolized English in FL Classes in Barbados

One of the most controversial issues in the teaching of modern languages throughout the 20th century has been without a doubt the debate on the use of students' first language in foreign language classrooms. In that regard, there have been many and varied arguments for and against this. In this chapter there is a review both of the reasons that have been discussed to reject the presence of L1 in the foreign language class and those in favor of including this language. In addition, the findings of research on Caribbean foreign language students' opinions and beliefs on the use of L1/HL in their language classes are presented. The chapter considers the students' views on the specific classroom contexts in which they consider the L1/HL useful in their process of learning the foreign language.

Teachers' Perspectives on the Use of Home Language in the Acquisition of Standard English

This study sought to investigate the perceptions of Barbadian primary school teachers regarding the use of home language (HL) in the acquisition of Standard English (SE). To this end, 42 teachers completed questionnaires. The data revealed that teachers (87%) considered SE as the language of prestige, education, commerce, and upward mobility. Conversely, teachers (89%) agreed that there was a place for HL in the SE classroom. However, teachers held contradictory views on whether HL hinders the acquisition of SE. The data also indicated that teachers use HL in the SE classroom to help students grasp and understand difficult concepts, to act as a bridge between the two languages, for translation, and to facilitate code-switching. In contrast, some teachers believed that HL limits the SE vocabulary, contradicts SE rules, and hinders SE speech and writing. These findings are significant to consider when examining HL use in the SE classroom.

Challenges for Inclusive Education Through Home Languages in the Caribbean Part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands

Over the past decades, an increasing number of initiatives aimed at the introduction of the use of home languages of the majority of the populations of the territories of the Caribbean part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands in education, governance, and the judiciary have been the subject of lively and sometimes acrimonious debate. In this chapter, the authors discuss an inventory of popular beliefs on the adequateness for academic use and status of the different languages in the Caribbean part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands to understand the processes that underly the resistance to moves toward inclusive education in home languages of the majority of the populations of these islands. This inventory is produced by the three authors of this chapter, who at various levels have investigated attitudes and beliefs related to language in general, and the adoption of the former colonizer's state tradition and language regime in particular, in Aruba, Bonaire, Curaçao, St. Eustatius, and St. Maarten.

The First Step

Many of the current teacher resources fail to address the differences between home and target language; therefore, teachers in Barbados need to intentionally incorporate language awareness in their English Language teaching. Based on Craig's three-step orientation for language teaching and learning, this chapter presents data that sought to assist in concretizing the theory through practical application. For the research, eight teachers participated in a workshop designed to facilitate exposure to innovative uses of language awareness and expressed views about the application of the strategy within a focus group. Moreover, rich textual information was gathered through a thematic analysis of data. While participants expressed mixed views on the value of Bajan Dialect in the classroom, they agreed that some element of language awareness was needed. Further, they held the perspective that the implementation of the strategy would advance English Language teaching and learning in Barbados and move toward transformation in pedagogical practices.

Home Language

The chapter briefly discusses the terms used to refer to the language or languages first acquired by an individual as well as variations between language acquisition and learning in Caribbean settings. The chapter then goes on to explore prevailing attitudes to language and trends in education policy. A summary of relevant research on home language is presented with the ensuing discussion focusing particularly on the relationship between home language, second language acquisition, the development of proficiency and literacy, and, more generally, academic success. The final section presents some reasons why the inclusion of home language in education is beneficial, particularly in Caribbean contexts.

Early Learning Environments

The literature establishes that a child's language development begins before birth and precedes to the beginning of formal education. For this reason, the first place of learning is the home, under the guidance of parents and family. Therefore, on entering a school system, a young child already has a base of knowledge and can communicate competently in many ways. However, often the child's communicative competence in some aspects contrasts with the standards of school culture. This chapter sets out to highlight the importance of incorporating children's home languages into their formal learning environment during the first eight years of life. Further the chapter underscores the need to maximize the learning process, while respecting learners' cultural and personal identities, learners and their parents and guardians must be able to understand the significance of language for communication. Accordingly, providing a quality early learning experience must include accepting, embracing, and valuing each learner's home language.

Literacy Development in Vernacular Speakers

The unique language situation in St. Lucia and the heterogeneity of the St. Lucian classroom suggest the implementation of an innovative way of using students' first language. Furthermore, the inability of many infant and primary school students to attain satisfactory marks in certain components of national English examinations are two factors which should influence the method of classroom instruction. Thus, the data in this chapter address the use of home language in instruction. In particular, the investigation of eight infant level students exposed to a model of vernacular instruction which included both English and Kwéyòl instruction produced comparative results of phonological awareness in the two languages. The data revealed that over time the students were better able to perceive sounds common to both languages and that their ability to perform phonological tasks may depend on the cognitive nature of the tasks and the cognitive operations required to perform them.

Keeping Watch on Learners' Language

Generally, Caribbean teachers seem to have limited engagement with applying observation of young learners' language in the classroom setting. For this chapter, a sample of 40 Grade 1 to 3 teachers from six Caribbean countries provided information to examine teachers' use of observation of learners' oral discourse to inform instructional pedagogy in English Language teaching. Based on primarily qualitative methods, a standardized structured-interview guide, focus group discussion, and classroom observation guide were used to collect data on teachers' classroom instruction. The findings revealed that while teachers declared knowledge of the merits of applying observation for evaluating learners' real language, the evidence of application of this assessment strategy was missing. In addition, results which showed that some teachers appeared to lack awareness of utilizing information about learners' home language use to cater to their individual language needs, warranted attention to transformative pedagogical perspectives in English Language instruction.

The Immanent Presence of the Home Language in the Foreign Language Classroom Under the Transformative-Holistic Pedagogical Paradigm

The purpose of this chapter is to advocate for the integrated use of the home language/culture in the foreign language/culture classroom. This recommendation is made with the support and application of transformative-holistic pedagogical principles. The chapter uses reflection and experiential methods to engage with the selected area and paradigm of inquiry from several multidisciplinary analytical and critical perspectives. These frames of reference include the cognitive, cross-cultural, affective, neuroscientific, metalinguistic, and literacy approaches.