Diaspora Policies, Consular Services and Social Protection for Moroccan Citizens Abroad

This chapter sheds light on the ways in which Morocco, country of origin of a five million expatriate population centered in Europe, promotes the social protection of its expatriate citizens. Within Moroccan diaspora policies, which are long-standing, extensive and promoted by a range of diaspora institutions, the social protection of nationals abroad does not take a central position. Rather, Moroccan diaspora policies prioritize the mobilization of expatriate human and financial capital for Moroccan development interests. However, a number of initiatives have been taken to facilitate non-resident citizens’ access to social rights, such as the conclusion of bilateral conventions with major destination countries and the creation of social programs by Moroccan diaspora institutions.

Diaspora Policies, Consular Services and Social Protection for Tunisian Citizens Abroad

With 10% of Tunisians living abroad, the Tunisian diaspora is a subject of national concern. How can the Tunisian state ensure their access to social protection abroad? This chapter will present the general institutional framework by which Tunisian authorities interact with their nationals abroad, as well as the main policies for engaging with this population. The chapter will provide an overview of the Tunisian diaspora’s main characteristics, its relations with the homeland and the policies, programs and services offered by Tunisian authorities to respond to the transnational social protection needs of Tunisian nationals abroad. By highlighting its diaspora infrastructure, key policy issues and, in particular, its social protection policies for citizens abroad, the chapter seeks to analyse the realities and deficiencies of Tunisia’s diaspora policies.

Access to Social Protection by Immigrants, Emigrants and Resident Nationals in Turkey

This chapter scrutinises the social protection system in contemporary Turkey in order to examine how different groups of individuals access social benefits across five main policy areas—unemployment, health care, family allowances, pensions, and guaranteed minimum resources. The general conditions under which Turkish citizens and foreigners have access to social benefits in Turkey can be summarized as follows: (i) residence and employment status are important determinants of one’s access to social protection in Turkey; (ii) employment status generally determines the access to unemployment benefits, health care, pensions, and family benefits, while residence status is important for all social policy areas except pensions; (iii) a majority of social benefits provided for Turkish citizens are also available for foreign residents through their employment status; (iv) guaranteed income is granted based on residence in Turkey; (v) access to family benefits may vary depending on one’s occupation, residence, and nationality. The Turkish system of social protection is a fragmented one, with divisions based on occupational differences, residence, income level, and citizenship. This fragmented nature coupled with regional and global socio-economic risks (particularly large migration flows) make structural social security reforms inevitable in contemporary Turkey.

Diaspora Policies, Consular Services and Social Protection for Senegalese Citizens Abroad

This chapter presents the main areas of engagement of the state of Senegal with its diaspora. In the first part, it looks at the main institutions and policies geared towards the diaspora. In the second part, the chapter focuses specifically on diaspora policies in the area of social protection (unemployment, health care, family benefits, pensions, guaranteed minimum resources). If Senegal falls in the category of pioneer countries for some aspects of emigration policies (ministerial institutions, external voting, political representation), its policy for the diaspora in the field of social protection is rather scanty. As a developing country facing many structural economic issues, scaling up social protection in the homeland remains the top priority for the Government, relegating social protection for the diaspora as a secondary policy concern for now. Recent governmental policies towards the diaspora have focused primarily on tapping the resources of the diaspora in order to increase its contribution to economic development and facilitate productive investment by Senegalese abroad in their home country.

Diaspora Policies, Consular Services and Social Protection for Chinese Citizens Abroad

In this chapter we discuss China’s evolving policies toward Chinese nationals abroad, with particular attention to the expanding area of social protection. Our analysis shows that China’s policy-making activities concerning diaspora have been largely driven by a focus on economic agenda rather than social welfare. This chapter presents a detailed picture of China’s social protection provision towards its diaspora and shows how its policy-making is guided by priorities which vary from one field to another. We trace how “overseas Chinese affairs work” has developed through expanding policy infrastructure, encouraging China’s diaspora to participate in national economy and trade, science and technology developments, and large-scale crisis response, yet has seen limited developments in the area of day-to-day social protection of Chinese nationals abroad.

Access to Social Protection by Immigrants, Emigrants and Resident Nationals in Argentina

This chapter discusses the level and quality of social protection granted to legally residing migrant workers in Argentina and national citizens residing abroad in five main policy areas: unemployment, health, pensions, family benefits and guaranteed minimum resources. After an overview of recent evolutions in Argentina’s Social Security and migration policy, we analyze each policy area in order to identify the necessary eligibility requirements for accessing social benefits or services. Our findings show that, in general, the contributory logic prevails over nationality for Social Security benefits. In the case of non-contributory programs, we observe a regime that is generally less generous in quantitative and qualitative terms, and even more restricted for migrants. Despite this, Argentina’s immigration policy is relatively open, especially for migrants from the region, while certain fundamental rights (such as health and education) are guaranteed to all migrants (regardless of their migratory status).

Access to Social Protection by Immigrants, Emigrants and Resident Nationals in Serbia

Turbulent political events of the 1990s marked by the Yugoslav wars, protracted transition from socialism to capitalism, and unstable economic outlook since 2000, have contributed to the preservation of a Serbian welfare system focused on ‘old social risks’, also marked by an exclusionary social protection model that limits access to some benefits to migrants – both foreigners in Serbia and Serbians abroad. Access to most social protection benefits for foreigners residing and working in Serbia depends on the same criteria and requirements as those applied for resident nationals. As the Serbian welfare regime is based on the social insurance model, the entitlement for most social benefits in cash or in kind is based on the employment period and/or payment of compulsory social insurance contributions. However, foreigners remain excluded from accessing non-contributory benefits such as the parental benefits, child allowances or the guaranteed minimum resource scheme. Non-resident nationals have access to social benefits depending on whether the country they reside in has signed social security agreements with Serbia, but range of benefits varies depending on the country.

Access to Social Protection by Immigrants, Emigrants and Resident Nationals in the Russian Federation

This chapter discusses the general legal framework regulating Russia’s welfare system and access for national citizens, foreigners residing in the country, and national citizens residing abroad to social benefits in five policy areas: unemployment, health care, family benefits, pensions, and guaranteed minimum resources. Our analysis shows that the eligibility of Russian nationals for social benefits depends either on their employment status and contribution record (for pensions and other social insurance benefits), or their residence status (for social assistance and healthcare). The overall level of social protection of citizens residing in different parts of the country may differ substantially due to the decentralized structure of the social protection system in Russia. The rights of foreign residents to social security benefits are essentially the same as those of the nationals, as long as they are legally employed and make social security contributions. However, there are two major exceptions: pensions and unemployment benefits. Social assistance benefits provided at the regional level are typically available to all legal residents, foreigners included, with few exceptions. When deciding to permanently move abroad, Russian citizens lose their entitlement to claim social benefits from Russia, apart from acquired contributory public pensions.

Diaspora Policies, Consular Services and Social Protection for Argentine Citizens Abroad

Argentina has a relatively small diaspora and short experience engaging with it. This study explains the evolution of the institutional framework by which Argentina’s authorities interact with nationals abroad since early 2000s, with a specific focus on social protection. It shows that Argentina’s policies for citizens abroad have not institutionalised yet as a distinct and vibrant sphere of action and most initiatives have waxed and waned over time. As a result, Argentina’s lukewarm approach to diaspora engagement is characterised by ambivalence, intermittent and selective engagement, and relatively little development in terms of responding to social protection needs of nationals abroad. In the last few years, though, there has been an attempt to simplify bureaucratic procedures and improve services via virtual means. In particular, this chapter presents a detailed account of the policies, programmes and services offered by Argentine authorities across five specific policy areas: unemployment, health care, pensions, family-related benefits, and economic hardship. It shows that the area of social security and pensions is the most developed and that Argentines residing in MERCOSUR member states have benefited from the enactment of social and economic rights by regional accords.

Access to Social Protection by Immigrants, Emigrants and Resident Nationals in Lebanon

Although Lebanese social protection schemes are heavily fragmented, the National Social Security Fund (NSSF) is the primary provider of end-of-service indemnity, health care and family benefits. However, only Lebanese who are formally employed or foreigners originating from countries which provide equal or better social protection to Lebanese citizens are eligible to enrol in the fund according to the 1963 Social Security Law. Those not enrolled must often rely on ad hoc social protection services provided by non-governmental or international organisations to obtain (limited) social services. Migrants, including Palestinians, Sri Lankans, Indonesians and Syrians are particularly vulnerable as they are ineligible to enrol in the NSSF. Also, Lebanese nationals residing abroad are ineligible to obtain benefits from the National Social Security Fund.