Bread in Lithuanian Literature

Bread is one of the most important cultural realities distinguished by its direct and symbolic significance. In Lithuanian folklore, there are clear direct connections between bread and the most important categories of national values: diligence, thoughtfulness, responsibility, kindness, and spiritual nobility. Bread symbolises strength, mind, self-control, loyalty, kindness, and humility. It was of immense sacral importance in the lives of our ancestors: it became the central element of numerous customs of family life, calendar rituals, agrarian celebrations, and was widely featured in Lithuanian folk songs, fairy-tales, tales, and beliefs. Bread has always been an important image in Lithuanian literature. A loaf of bread, a slice of bread, daily, wholemeal bread, the bread of life, mother’s bread are traditional images of Lithuanian poetry and prose, reflecting the reality of the nation’s life and at the same time visually drawing the hierarchy of the nation’s spiritual values. In the poem Metai (The Seasons), the pioneer of Lithuanian literature Kristijonas Donelaitis gives a vivid picture of the life of the serfs of Lithuania Minor in the eighteenth century, and his characters primarily address their thanks to God for giving people bread, the greatest grace of all. Since then, images of the worshiped daily bread have become stronger in literature, pointing to its vital importance. The image of holy bread takes root in Lithuanian twentieth-century poetry, perhaps most clearly meaningful in the work by Kazys Bradūnas, one of žemininkai, or the ‘earth’ poets. In his poetry, bread is associated with the meanings of the holiness of agricultural existence. In the poet’s work, bread is an important moment in the cosmogony of the microworld, symbolising rebirth and the higher moments of an individual’s existence. Such a poetic interpretation of bread is also characteristic of Sigitas Geda’s works. In the poetry of Justinas Marcinkevičius, Janina Degutytė, Alfonsas Maldonis, and Robertas Keturakis, bread becomes an important element in the poetic programme of goodness and is associated with the artistic meanings of human spiritual nobility, inner warmth, and love. In Lithuanian literature, bread emerges both as the great manifestation of the woman in traditional Lithuanian culture (Birutė Baltrušaitytė, Vanda Juknaitė) and as a symbol of harmony in dehumanised reality (Juozas Kundrotas). One of the most striking literary transformations of the artistic image of bread is its desacralisation in the works by Valdas Gedgaudas and the group “Svetimi” (Strangers). Here bread is interpreted as a symbol of chaos and disharmony between the human and the world. Thus, one of the most important realities of Lithuanian culture, the image of bread in Lithuanian literature, is changing; it reflects the worldview of the human of the epoch and his or her spiritual orientations and attitudes.

‘Here’ and ‘There’: Constructing the Idea of Home in (Lithuanian) Migration

The article analyses the concepts of home. The analysis is based on field research data obtained from two Norwegian municipalities, one in the northern and one in the south-western part of Norway. Based on interviews, the article reveals the migrants’ own concepts of home. The results of the survey reveal three main concepts of home construction by migrants: home in Lithuania, home in Norway, and home as ‘here’ and ‘there’. The idea of home in Lithuania while permanently living in Norway is partly related to the migrants’ age and their social status, also on the degree of integration into the new society (older immigrants to Norway often work in low-skilled jobs and do not speak Norwegian or speak it poorly); they see their presence in Norway as temporary and based on economic criteria. The idea of Norway as home correlates with the (high) degree of integration of migrants into Norwegian society. Migrants who feel well received by the new society, regardless of age, call Norway their home. The idea of home as ‘here’ and ‘there’ is closely linked to the time dimension. Migrants often emphasize that after arriving in Norway, they seldom see themselves as having left Lithuania, until they gradually integrate into the new society and begin considering Norway as their home. Lithuania is often referred to as second home (more often associated with holidays, entertainment, etc.). The kin (mostly parents) are named as a bridge between Norway and Lithuania, which disappears when parents pass away. Various intermediate ideas of home construction are also possible. For example, identifying the place of residence of family members at the time as home or not being able to pinpoint where you feel at home. The discussed dimension of emotions in the construction of the idea of home also provides inspirations for further reflection on the construction of home as a constant process, which is dependent not only on rationally chosen factors but also on the socio-cultural environment and intercultural communication.

A Study into the Pawprints of Urban Dogs

The aim of the article is to present a comprehensive study on specific paw parameters and features, movement peculiarities, leg injuries, hairiness, etc. of dogs that lived in the city of Vilnius and its surroundings and left their marks on clay ware made by local craftsmen. The study was based on 238 clay objects found in Vilnius and dating from the late thirteenth to the eighteenth century. Dogs were found to leave the highest number of pawprints on bricks (90.8%), with significantly lower numbers on floor tiles (8%) and roof tiles (1.2%). The apparent increase in the number of traces is recorded from approximately the fifteenth century due to the steady increase in the quantity of clay products and the accessibility of the production environment to domestic animals. More than 450 dog pawprints in clay were examined using a trasology technique. Most frequently, one, two, or three traces were found on an artefact, while four, five, or six traces on one object were much less frequent. The analysis of trace features showed that 179 of the traces were those of the forepaws and 112 of the hind paws. The assessment of the deformation of the clay articles during firing and the comparison of the data obtained with the parameters of the paws of current breeds of dogs suggest that about 2% of the pawprints were left by small or young dogs. Mediumsized dogs left 70.5% of the traces, 25.7% belonged to dogs resembling current breeds of Doberman or Labrador retriever, 4.7% dogs similar to Borzoi or German shepherd, and 0.9% to Akita or Bobtail. An additional comparison of the pawprints with those of the present-day Lithuanian hounds showed that this type of dog could have left about 22% of the total number of the paw prints studied. It can be concluded that the results of the tracing studies revealed a significantly broader picture than the zooarchaeological material. Pawprint studies show that 25% of the dogs in the city of Vilnius during the period in question were long-haired and 75% were short-haired. The recorded paw pathologies provided information on various nail and toe injuries, tendon pathologies, and one possible case of patella dislocation. Meanwhile, the analysis of the dogs’ speed of movement suggests that at least some of the dogs in Vilnius between the late thirteenth and the eighteenth century were not tied and moved freely in the environment of the craftsmen who manufactured clay ware. In summary, the preliminary results of the pawprint analysis make a significant contribution to the broader knowledge of the history of dogs and provide unique data on urban dogs, which are scarcely recorded in written and zooarchaeological sources.

The Oath as an Element of Juridical Culture in Early-Seventeenth-Century Courts of Samogitia

The work is focused on the use of the oath in Samogitian land and castle court books at the beginning of seventeenth century. The oath was administered quite often and it was the fastest way to resolve one instance of litigation or another. According to the submitted examples of seventeenth-century court books, oaths were incriminating or exculpatory. Incriminating oaths (those of the plaintiff party) were more frequent. Administering an oath did not necessarily mean it would be fulfilled as they often ended in a reconciliation or postponement. Reconciliation under oath did not always mean that the defendant would be exempt from financial sanctions, which courts often imposed even after a formal conciliation. Partial oaths were also practiced: the oath would be divided into several segments and a person would swear to one segment of a charge and not to another. The postponement or withholding of oaths resulted not only from formal reasons but also from the desire not to err in hasty administration of justice.

Historical Texts in the Periodical Press of Lithuanian Humanities and Social Sciences, 1907–1941: A Quantitative Approach

In Lithuania, the first half of the twentieth century was the beginning of the Lithuanian scholarly journals. Lithuanian humanities and social sciences, which were held in high esteem by Lithuanian society, were making efforts to reflect both the development of science and research in the country’s scientific past and to shed light on some of past events in Lithuania. History, therefore, was an important topic in first scholarly journals. This article is focused on historical texts (articles, reviews, bibliographies, publications of historical sources) in twenty different Lithuanian scholarly journals on history, language, literature, philosophy, religion, ethnology, economics, law, and some other disciplines from 1907 to 1941. The article starts with the first Lithuanian scholarly journal Lietuvių tauta and ends with the last historical journal of the interwar period released during the Second World War. It analyses all general sets of texts in the journals. This quantitative research attempts to show the frequency of historical texts in the scientific periodical press, the most common types of texts, the frequency of the publication of these texts during the analysed period, and the type of history (local or foreign) that was more important for each of the journals or serial publications. In addition, this article points to the historical themes and historical periods that used to recur most frequently and to the countries that were represented in historical texts. The results of the survey show that approximately 49% of all the articles in the surveyed periodical press could be described as historical: such texts comprised from 21 to 100% of all texts in each of the academic journals The most common type of such texts was the historical article (at least 70% of all texts), followed by the review and the publication of historical sources. The largest number of historical texts was published in the second half of the 1930s and the lowest in the period of 1900s to 1910s and in the second half of the 1920s. The history of Lithuania was represented in 60% of all texts and foreign history in 48% of them. Eight out of 20 analysed scholarly journals demonstrated preference for foreign history rather than local. The most common was the history of Germany, France, Russia, Italy, Poland, England, and the Baltic countries. The most common themes of historical texts in the scholarly periodical press were biographies, social, cultural, and political history. Historical themes were mostly related to different interests of sciences and there were huge differences between these groups. The survey also shows that although Lithuanian medieval history was much less important to almost all scholarly periodical press, it was interesting to the general public, and that some nineteenth-century Lithuanian historical events received more attention. The nineteenth century and the early twentieth century were the most analysed historical periods, but some journals were predominantly interested in ancient history. Some historical and language-related periodicals focused on the medieval and early modern history of Lithuania.

Traces of French Culture in Palanga: The Historical Context of Palanga Botanical Park, Personalities, and Memory

The article focuses on the origins of French culture in Palanga, a Lithuanian seaside resort, that go back to the years of the rule of the Tyszkiewicz family. The emphasis is put on Palanga Botanical Park (created before the end of the nineteenth century) as the most significant trace of French culture present in the resort and the seaside region until now. The specific symbols in the park created according to the will of the Counts Tyszkiewicz reflect the actualities of French culture. The importance of this space in the city is revealed, and Édouard François André’s principles of park creation are discussed in a new context. They are related to the dialogue that has been established between the residents of Palanga, the park, its creator, and his granddaughter Florence André since the first years of the independence of Lithuania. In order to give a meaning to Édouard André’s creation and to the relationship between the two countries, the correspondence between the great-granddaughter of the famous French landscape designer and the former director of the park, Antanas Sebeckas, is disclosed. It reflects the endeavour of these two personalities and its value for the international relations in representing French culture to the public. Florence André’s letters to the author of this article are also an important resource as she explains the reasons why the park plays an essential role in Palanga. It is shown how certain personal life events (Florence André’s wedding ceremony in Palanga, the park created by her great-grandfather) have become an inclusive part of the history of the town and represent intercultural relations and exchanges. The article is also based on some memories and narratives of the members of the local community in which the park features as a symbol and tradition of the city.

Intentions of Cultural Liberalism in Interwar Kaunas: Cohesion of Science and Society

The aim of the article is to study the impact of the ideas of modern liberalism put forward by the scholars and lecturers of the University of Lithuania, which was established in Kaunas in 1922, in developing the educational voice of the intelligentsia in the society. The study looks into archival and other published sources on the democratic sociocultural environment set up at the University of Lithuania, analyses the impact of the ideas of cultural liberalism expressed by scholars in organising the training and cultural education of the population. The article uses the documents related to the pedagogical and cultural performance of the university operating in Kaunas, personal collections, minutes of meetings of organisations established by intellectuals, official letters and other correspondence, and periodicals. The sources employed in this work tell about the significant organisational and scientific contribution of researchers not only to organising the studies in Kaunas but also to mobilising a qualified, socially active, and democratic academic community. The contribution of the university professors from different fields of science and their value-based approach were of great importance in the development of the sociocultural life of the university. Vaclovas Biržiška, Petras Leonas, Albinas Rimka, and other intellectuals based their theoretical ideas and public actions on democracy, social solidarity, tolerance, other principles of social progress, and the recognition of the value and rights of every person. The ideas of democracy, the development of an educated personality and a modern society were the spiritual basis of many intellectuals’ educational activities in society right from the founding of the University of Lithuania, even though only some of them consistently favoured the doctrines of modern liberalism. Professors from Kaunas University sought to apply scientific knowledge and disseminate their experience by organizing direct training for adults at different levels of education and from different social strata. They established public adult education institutions. The scholars of Kaunas did not limit themselves to the education of the residents of their city, promotion of their educational interests, and development of their cultural horizons. Together with other intellectuals, authors of literary and artistic works, publicists and educators who promoted democratic position, they took part in the work of the Lithuanian Cultural Union, which had been functioning since 1924. This union brought together several dozens of public organisations and companies and cooperated with publishers of liberal cultural magazines.

The Heraldry of the Noble Gruževskis Family and Its Actualisation at the Kelmė Regional Museum

From the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries, the heraldry of the nobility of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was influenced by local, Polish, and other European heraldic traditions. The coat of arms became one of the most important elements representing the culture and identity of the nobles. It reflected their family and marital ties, titles, positions, and other important aspects in the life of the nobility. The coats of arms that have survived to this day act as a reminder of the past lives of their holders. The article explores the heraldry of the noble Gruževskis (Grużewski) family from Samogitia between the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries and its actualisation in the twenty-first century in the manor estate in Kelmė that was formerly owned by this family. The analysis revealed that the Gruževskis, a Polish noble family, who moved to Samogitia in the sixteenth century, enriched the heraldic tradition of the region’s nobility with the Lubicz coat of arms originating in Poland. The Lubicz coat of arms depicts a white horseshoe on an azure field with two crosses, one cross inside the horseshoe and the other outside with a crest of three ostrich feathers. The article looks at the heraldic seals held by the members of the Gruževskis family be­tween the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries, the seventeenth-century coat of arms of Jurgis Gruževskis in the joint coat of arms in Kelmė Evangelical Reformed Church, and the eighteenth-century coat of arms of the Gruževskis family above the entrance to the manor house they used to own. It has been observed that the members of the Gruževskis family preserved their coat of arms from the sixteenth century up to the second half of the eighteenth century and that it was passed down from generation to generation. The analysis of the records shows that the family’s heraldic tradition featured both single-field and combined coats of arms. The emergence of the former in the seventeenth century is traced back to Jurgis Gruževskis. Today, the Kelmė Regional Museum is one of the main memory institutions that preserve and actualise the legacy of the noble Gruževskis family. While the coat of arms of this family is not forgotten by the museum and receives relatively comprehensive attention, there are few attempts to provide more detailed information or more critical insights about it. The heraldry of the former owners of the manor estate is usually presented using easy-to-understand visual resources such as illustrations, stands, interactive materials, and souvenirs. It is believed that visitors could be offered a more detailed picture of the heraldic traditions of the Gruževskis family and a more critical approach to these traditions could be developed by drawing upon a relatively extensive range of heraldic sources and scholarly materials. The possibility of showcasing the copies of the sources featuring the family’s heraldic traditions or developing thematic educational activities is to be considered.

Examination of the Substance of Cases in Samogitian Courts of the Early Seventeenth Century

Based on the manuscripts of the early-seventeenth-century books of Samogitian land and castle courts, the article shows that the examination of the cases was based on the verification of the submitted written evidence, testimonies of witnesses, or investigation of the circumstances of cases at the scenes of incidents. Reliability was the most important aspect in the study of written evidence. The main focus was placed on proving the authenticity of the document. A slightest suspicion that the document had been corrected or supplemented immediately provoked protests from the opponents. The origin of the witnesses and their property status were the main reliability criteria. In courts, testimonies given by local nobility were considered more valuable than the testimonies of peasants, and testimonies of non-native nobles (mostly arrivals from Poland) or even their origin were often questioned. Scrutiny, or the examination of the circumstances of the case at the scene of the incident, was not frequent, although this action was sometimes performed without including the term ‘scrutiny’ as such in court books.

Decisions of the Samogitian Court in the First Decade of the Seventeenth Century

The article examines several types of legal dispute resolutions in Samogitian castle and land courts in the first decade of the seventeenth century. These are non-appear­ance decisions and reconciliations between litigants. Dozens of examples from castle and land courts are provided. The ways of arriving at the court decisions discussed were measures aimed at accelerating the administration of justice, which was not quick enough due to endless disputes, appeals, or postponement of cases in the courts of Samogitia. Reconciliation was often achieved on the eve of oaths in court. At the same time, efforts were made to reduce the enormous workload of the courts in the region.