The Creative Environment

In this chapter, the creative phase of the Oxford Group is documented. It is noted that the experience of the Oxford Group was distinct in two main ways. In the first place, the main paradigm shift in thought—the conversion to vegetarianism and, for some, veganism—occurred very quickly for the individuals in the group as a result of an initial meeting with someone already committed. Second, for many of the participants, this conversion at the formation stage was the sum of their contribution and this was more than enough, for them, to identify as part of a group with, at the time at least, a very radical and pathbreaking outlook. Straddling a detailed coverage of these distinguishing characteristics, the chapter starts by providing a general description of how the group interacted, and ends by demonstrating that there were, in fact, a number of intersecting groups within the whole.

Arrival and Formation

This chapter serves three main functions. First, it identifies the ten core members of the Oxford Group, and documents their backgrounds and the circumstances of their arrival in the city of Oxford. The Oxford Group consisted of three married couples: Roslind and Stanley Godlovitch, Peter and Renata Singer, and Richard and Mary Keshen. Next were the three singletons who shared a house in Oxford: John Harris, David Wood, and Michael Peters. Finally, and slightly more at the periphery—partly because of his age and partly because he was not an Oxford student (or married to one)—there was Richard Ryder. Second, it describes the formation of the Oxford Group and the key role played by the gatekeepers. Here, a dynamic role was played by the Godlovitches and by Brigid Brophy who did most to bring the group together Finally, the role of what Farrell describes as the “magnet place,” in our case Oxford—and the university in particular—is dissected. The importance of access to a major seat of learning that had a unparalled reputation in the field of philosophy and which was at the forefront of the development of a new field of applied ethics is documented.

Departure and Aftermath

This chapter describes the subsequent lives and careers of the group of ethical vegetarians who met at Oxford. More analytically, it seeks to consider how influential their crusade for animal rights has been, focusing on the impact of Singer’s Animal Liberation. In short, it is difficult to quantify the contribution made by the Oxford Group, and Singer’s work in particular, to the revitalization of the animal protection movement since the 1970s. Clearly, Animal Liberation has had a considerable influence, for some acting as a catalyst for the way they see the world, and for others reinforcing, and giving structure to, their already existing disquiet at the way animals are treated. It is extremely likely, however, that the considerable strides made by the animal protection movement (documented in this chapter) would have happened anyway even if the Oxford Group, and Singer’s work on animal ethics, had not existed.

Introduction

The introduction sets the scene for the book by sketching out the theoretical framework to be used to analyze the Oxford Group. The study of the Oxford Group serves as a case study of creative endeavor. How do we explain the emergence of important work and the development of new ideas, and how important is the creative community within which these ideas emerge? Explaining the theory building that accompanied the ethnographic research, centering on a set of oral history interviews with the participants, is important not only as a way of making sense of the Oxford Group but also as a device to facilitate dialogue across fields and methods by providing a trans-situational language. The theoretical framework derives both from ethnographic observation—and in that sense is engaged with grounded theory—and from the extension and refinement of preexisting theoretical formulations. This includes an engagement with the literature on group dynamics, including most notably collaborative circles as well as social network theory and psychogeography.

Conclusion

After considering oral history and memory in the context of the Oxford Group study, this chapter summarizes the content of the book, relating the Oxford Group case study to the theoretical framework outlined in the introduction. It confirms that the solitary genius model of creative endeavor is not, for the most part, supported. That is, the work produced by members of the Oxford Group, and Singer’s in particular, was the product of collaboration. The Oxford Group had many of the characteristics of a collaborative circle as identified by Farrell. However, some nuances of this particular collaborative circle are identified. In addition, some challenges to the model as an explanatory device are raised. Collaborative circles do not exist in isolation, and account needs to be taken of wider social networks, the academic environment to which, Singer in particular, was exposed, and the prevailing social, economic, and political environment.

Singer, Hare, and the Role of the Academy

This chapter examines the extent to which Peter Singer’s intellectual development can be explained by the formal academic environment. It therefore provides a case study testing the explanatory validity of the research school model (focusing on the hierarchical relationship within an academic setting in which the mentor/protégé relationship is the norm) as opposed to the collaborative circle friendship group model. Particular attention is placed on the role of Singer’s academic supervisor, the philosopher R. M. Hare. It is argued that Hare’s role was important in a number of ways but there were limits to his influence on Singer. In particular, Hare wrote little about animal ethics and was only a lukewarm vegetarian. Moreover, while both were utilitarians, Singer did not derive his utilitarianism from Hare.

Collective Action

This chapter considers what Farrell defines as the “collective action” stage of a collaborative circle. The collective action pursued by members of the Oxford Group is documented in the context of the historical development of the animal protection movement. The activity of the group can be usefully divided into attempts to convince the academic community of the merits of vegetarianism, on the one hand, and, on the other, outward-facing activism directed at the wider community. A discussion of the group’s activism outside of the university environment can, in turn, distinguish between personal lifestyle statements, direct and overt campaigning, and published outputs, principally the edited volume Animals, Men and Morals, which led to the publication of Animal Liberation.

Collaborative Pairings

Farrell’s model of a collaborative circle predicts that much of the creative work is conducted within pairings in which instrumental intimacy—the sharing of unpublished and often unwritten ideas—occurs. This chapter examines two key such pairings in the Oxford Group, between Peter Singer and Ros Godlovitch, and between Peter Singer and Richard Ryder. The chapter considers the impact on Singer’s intellectual development of his association with the Oxford Group in general and Ryder and Ros Godlovitch in particular. It demonstrates how the transformation in Singer’s thinking about animals was startling. He learned from Godlovitch and Ryder in particular but, at the same time, he impacted their thought too. It is plausible to suggest that Singer’s participation in the Oxford Group was a vital component of his emergence as the most important animal ethicist.