8. A great civilian power … and more—or less?

The EC’s external relations were, in line with its powers, originally concentrated in the economic field. But there were from the outset also political aims. ‘A great civilian power … and more—or less?’ argues that as the EU develops its capacity in the field of security, it will become something more than a great civilian power. However, its strength in the economic, environmental, and other aspects of external policy, somewhat condescendingly called ‘soft power’, is already very important, and has great further potential as a force for the development of a safer and more prosperous world.

4. Single market, single currency

Monetary union requires that money in all its forms be able to move freely across frontiers between member states and that exchange rates changes between them be abolished. ‘Single market, single currency’ explains how the single market programme went far towards fulfilling the first requirement and the Exchange Rate Mechanism prepared the ground for the second. The legislative framework guarantees producers an extensive market and consumers a reasonable assurance of competitive behaviour between them. The euro was initially acclaimed as marking a new stage in European integration, but recent financial crises have exposed the flipside of this, with the euro as the crucible of political commitment to the EU.

11. Much accomplished … but what next?

In March 2017, two events illustrated the EU’s achievement and fragility. The first, the sixtieth anniversary of the signing of the Rome treaties, was an opportunity to reflect on how the integration process has become fundamental to European governance and government, reaching into almost every area of public policy. The second was the UK’s submission of their intention to withdraw from the EU. ‘Much accomplished … but what next?’ asks whether the EU has the necessary powers and structures to achieve its objectives, but also whether its objectives are even the right ones. Without considering the latter, the former risks becoming an exercise in political narcissism.

10. The EU in the world

‘The EU in the world’ considers how EU policies for dealing with the rest of the world have been developed. China seems likely to catch up with the US as a military and economic power. However, it is argued that the EU has the potential to be, much sooner, at least an equal partner with the US in matters of the economy, environment, and soft security, if not defence. It should not be difficult for Americans to adjust to a more powerful EU, after four decades of reasonable trade cooperation where both already have equivalent strength and with no prospect of rivalry in respect of military power.

9. The EU and the rest of Europe

A most impressive aspect of the EU project has been its ability to develop and expand from a small group of relatively similar states in Western Europe into an EU of much greater width and depth. ‘The EU and the rest of Europe’ argues that enlargement can be seen as an essential part of the EU and its continued development, not least in its dealings with those who remain outside. The treaty still affirms that membership is open to any European state that respects ‘the principles of liberty, democracy, respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms, and the rule of law’.

7. ‘An area of freedom, security and justice’

‘An area of freedom, security and justice’ explains the two main aims of the Schengen Agreements of 1985 and 1990. The first concerned border controls: to eliminate those internal to Schengenland; establish controls round its external frontier; and set rules to deal with asylum, immigration, and the movement or residence of other countries’ nationals within the area. The second was to cooperate in combating crime. While conditions in the EU are, in a general sense, notably free, secure, and just when compared with almost all other parts of the world, the persisting divisions between member states and the EU result in confused lines of control and limited scope for action.

6. Social policy, environmental policy

The EU has been given some of its powers because its size offers advantages not available to individual member states. Other powers prevent member states from damaging each other, including: the environmental policy, which is generally agreed to be desirable; and social policy, although with sharp disagreement as to the degree of EU intervention required. ‘Social policy, environmental policy’ examines the powerful impact of EU action on climate change internally and worldwide. The SEA extended the scope of social policy in two directions: providing for legislation on health and safety at work, and for the encouragement of dialogue between representatives of management and labour at European level.

5. Agriculture, regions, budget: conflicts over who gets what

‘Agriculture, regions, budget: conflicts over who gets what’ argues that because the single market enhances productivity in the economy, there is benefit for most people. But there will be some who lose from the opening of markets to new competition, and these may demand compensation for agreeing to participate in the new arrangements. Such compensation usually has implications for the EU budget. The size of the budget does constrain what the EU can do, for example in promoting cohesion and balanced development across its member states. Further reforms will be needed if the EU is to remain a relevant actor, both internally and in the wider world.

3. How the EU is governed

The EU has major economic and environmental powers, and is increasingly active in foreign policy, defence, and internal security. ‘How the EU is governed’ asks: how is this power used and controlled, and how is the EU governed? The system for governing the EU, with its complex mix of intergovernmental and federal elements, makes decision-making difficult and a satisfactory relationship between the institutions and the citizens hard to achieve. The EU has, however, been able to benefit from its growing democratic elements, such as the powers of the European Parliament, and that model is still likely to continue, along with the development of the EU as a whole.

1. What the EU is for

‘What the EU is for’ explores the development of the European Community (EC). For France and Germany, finding a way to live together in a durable peace was a fundamental political priority that the EC was designed to serve. As the Second World War recedes into a more distant past, the motive of peace and security remains a powerful influence on governments and politicians of many member states—and peace could only succeed with adequate economic performance. There are two main explanations for the phenomenon of the EC and EU. One emphasizes the role of member states and their intergovernmental dealings; the other gives greater weight to the European institutions.