Phonology in syntax

1972 ◽  
Vol 8 (2) ◽  
pp. 251-265 ◽  
Author(s):  
Robert Hetzron

In the present study I am adducing arguments against the assumption that there is a discrete level of grammar where all syntactic operation has stopped and the assignment of phonetic values to the then existing structure (the output of transformations) begins.The concept of ‘surface structure’ has received the following definitions in Chomsky's various works: ‘a proper bracketing of the linear, temporarily given sequence of elements, with the paired brackets labelled by category names (that is a labelled tree diagram, with such categories as Sentence, Noun Phrase, Verb Phrase, Noun, and a small number of others serving as labels)' (Chomsky, 1966: 21), ‘the organization into categories and phrases that is directly associated with the physical signal’ (Chomsky, 1968:25). These definitions take the physical event of speech as a starting point, and refer to the organization of the sentence on this level (cf. Chomsky, 1965a: 15). One finds, on the other hand, that in the Chomskyan system ‘surface structure’ is also defined in terms of derivation, as the last item in a finite sequence of phrase-markers, the output of the transformations (Chomsky, 1970: 53 f., 87), and such surface structures ‘are mapped into phonetic representations by the phonological rules’ (ibid.: 54) and are assigned intonational contours by rules of phonological interpretation (ibid.: 77). This is summed up in the formula ‘phonology: Pn→phonetic representation’ (ibid.: 87, where Pn is the surface structure, the last phrase-marker).

2014 ◽  
Vol 697 ◽  
pp. 235-238
Author(s):  
Gang Wu ◽  
Can Chao Huang ◽  
Hong Ling Qin ◽  
Chun Hua Zhao

Using the basic principle of heat transfer, tribology and numerical simulation, a two-dimensional heat transfer model of the three-layer composite brake pair materials were established. The temperature fields of brake pairs during the process of friction were analyzed. Applied given heat loads at different time node on the brake pair model, the temperatures of different bicycle brake pairs were compared and analyzed. Results show that the improved surface structures of brake pair have positive effect on decreasing the temperature of contact areas than that of ordinary surface structure.


Author(s):  
Ketki Lichade ◽  
Yizhou Jiang ◽  
Yayue Pan

Abstract Recently, many studies have investigated additive manufacturing of hierarchical surfaces with high surface area/volume (SA/V) ratios, and their performance has been characterized for applications in next-generation functional devices. Despite recent advances, it remains challenging to design and manufacture high SA/V ratio structures with desired functionalities. In this study, we established the complex correlations among the SA/V ratio, surface structure geometry, functionality, and manufacturability in the Two-Photon Polymerization (TPP) process. Inspired by numerous natural structures, we proposed a 3-level hierarchical structure design along with the mathematical modeling of the SA/V ratio. Geometric and manufacturing constraints were modeled to create well-defined three-dimensional hierarchically structured surfaces with a high accuracy. A process flowchart was developed to design the proposed surface structures to achieve the target functionality, SA/V ratio, and geometric accuracy. Surfaces with varied SA/V ratios and hierarchy levels were designed and printed. The wettability and antireflection properties of the fabricated surfaces were characterized. It was observed that the wetting and antireflection properties of the 3-level design could be easily tailored by adjusting the design parameter settings and hierarchy levels. Furthermore, the proposed surface structure could change a naturally-hydrophilic surface to near-superhydrophobic. Geometrical light trapping effects were enabled and the antireflection property could be significantly enhanced (>80% less reflection) by the proposed hierarchical surface structures. Experimental results implied the great potential of the proposed surface structures for various applications such as microfluidics, optics, energy, and interfaces.


Author(s):  
Bruce C. Bunker ◽  
William H. Casey

In Chapters 4 and 5, we demonstrated that local structures and charge distributions have an enormous impact on the equilibrium constants, trajectories, and kinetics of reactions involving soluble oxide precursors. In this chapter, we highlight those features that make reactions on extended oxide surfaces either similar to or dramatically different from the reactions documented in hydrolysis diagrams for each metal cation (see Chapter 5). We first describe oxide surface structures and then discuss how these structures impact both acid–base and ligand-exchange phenomena. In addition to dense oxides, we also introduce some of the chemistry associated with layered materials. Lamellar materials are important from both a fundamental and technological perspective, because water and ions can readily penetrate such structures and provide conditions under which almost every oxygen anion is at an oxide–water interface (see Chapter 10 and Chapter 11). This chapter focuses on oxides containing octahedral cations. The distinctive chemistry of oxides based on tetrahedral cations, including the clay minerals and the zeolites, are the focus of Part Five. The structures of bulk oxides were introduced in Chapter 2. However, for many oxides, the surface structures that interact with aqueous solutions are substantially different from structures found in the bulk. Here, we introduce the basic principles of oxide surfaces that make them chemically active. As a starting point, consider ideal oxide surfaces containing +2 octahedral cations. Pristine oxide surfaces can be created by cleaving perfect crystals in an ultrahigh-vacuum environment. The creation of new surfaces requires an expenditure of energy corresponding to the cohesive energy of the solid, which in turn represents the energy required to break every bond along a given fracture plane. For MgO, the Mg−O bond energy is 380 kJ/mole. Each surface created contains 1.4.1019 oxygen atoms/m2, or 2.4.10−5 moles of bonds. Because two surfaces are created in the fracture event, the initial interfacial energy of each resulting MgO surface is (1/2)(380 kJ/mole)/(2.4_10−5 mole/m2 )=4560 mJ/m2.


2019 ◽  
Vol 10 ◽  
pp. 459-466 ◽  
Author(s):  
Anna J Schulte ◽  
Matthias Mail ◽  
Lisa A Hahn ◽  
Wilhelm Barthlott

Angiosperms and their pollinators are adapted in a close co-evolution. For both the plants and pollinators, the functioning of the visual signaling system is highly relevant for survival. As the frequency range of visual perception in many insects extends into the ultraviolet (UV) region, UV-patterns of plants play an important role in the flower–pollinator interaction. It is well known that many flowers contain UV-absorbing pigments in their petal cells, which are localized in vacuoles. However, the contribution of the petal surface microarchitecture to UV-reflection remains uncertain. The correlation between the surface structure and its reflective properties is also relevant for biomimetic applications, for example, in the field of photovoltaics. Based on previous work, we selected three model species with distinct UV-patterns to explore the possible contribution of the surface architecture to the UV-signaling. Using a replication technique, we transferred the petal surface structure onto a transparent polymer. Upon illumination with UV-light, we observed structural-based patterns in the replicas that were surprisingly comparable to those of the original petals. For the first time, this experiment has shown that the parameters of the surface structure lead to an enhancement in the amount of absorbed UV-radiation. Spectrophotometric measurements revealed up to 50% less reflection in the UV-absorbing regions than in the UV-reflecting areas. A comparative characterization of the micromorphology of the UV-reflecting and UV-absorbing areas showed that, in principle, a hierarchical surface structure results in more absorption. Therefore, the results of our experiments demonstrate the structural-based amplification of UV-reflection and provide a starting point for the design of bioinspired antireflective and respectively strongly absorbing surfaces.


2013 ◽  
Vol 25 (4) ◽  
pp. 371-383 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jan M. Myszewski

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to establish a procedure to examine an organization's improvement process and its adverse factors.Design/methodology/approachThe objectives were to find a way to represent content of a specific improvement process and analyse reliability of improvement processes conducted at operational, tactical and strategic levels. Inspirations of the text were various heuristic schemes used in a process of problem solving: to stimulate transfer of data by formulation of questions (5W or 5Why); to control the flow of the process (QC Story or 8D etc.); and to document results of operation (Ishikawa, fault‐tree diagram, and others). The outcomes are: a questioning scheme on Improvement Story by 5 Whys, which provides guidance, through a study of an organization's improvement processes related to containment, corrective and preventive type; and diagrams of the Prevention State Transitions and the Improvement Snail, which facilitate navigation through the above processes.FindingsThere is a finite sequence of Why‐questions, which can be used to analyse basic characteristics of systems of improvement processes in organizations. This scheme has a direct graphical representation in the Improvement Snail and the Prevention States Transition diagrams.Practical implicationsThe scheme has a wide scope of applications: it can be used retrospectively or in parallel to a running process of problem solving. A context of the analysis may be auditing an improvement process or monitoring a particular improvement project.Originality/valueThe scheme combines various aspects of improving the effectiveness of an organization's functions. It can represent, in a systematic way, information concerning risk issues related to: the problems and their mechanisms; the effectiveness of improvement processes that are related to various levels of organization: operational, tactical and strategic and their coordination. The scheme is flexible, as it can be combined with various analytical techniques such as fault tree diagram etc. and it can be adjusted to any specific purpose, by modifying the structure and content of questions set.


2011 ◽  
Vol 14 ◽  
pp. 57-67 ◽  
Author(s):  
A.Y. Vorobyev ◽  
Chun Lei Guo

We modify optical and wetting properties of solids using a femtosecond laser surface nanostructuring technique. We demonstrate that this technique allows creating black and color metals. Absorptance of black titanium created in our study is measured to be about 90-97% over a broad wavelength range from the ultraviolet to infrared. Moreover, our technique can be also used for modifying wetting properties of solids. Here, we create a novel surface structure that transforms regular silicon to superwicking. This surface structure makes water run vertically uphill in a gravity defying way. Our study of the liquid motion shows that the extraordinarily strong self-propelling motion of water is due to a capillary effect from the surface structures we created.


1997 ◽  
Vol 04 (05) ◽  
pp. 901-905
Author(s):  
J. B. PENDRY

Low energy electron diffraction experiments have superb sensitivity to surface structure, but rely on sophisticated theory for their interpretation. Advances in computer power, and developments in the theory itself, enable us to handle surface structures of moderate complexity. For future advances we must look to a completely new approach and the case is made for order-N methods which follow the time evolution of a point source of electrons to generate all beams for all angles of incidence and all energies in one shot.


2017 ◽  
Vol 8 ◽  
pp. 1714-1722 ◽  
Author(s):  
Håkon Gundersen ◽  
Hans Petter Leinaas ◽  
Christian Thaulow

The cuticles of most springtails (Collembola) are superhydrophobic, but the mechanism has not been described in detail. Previous studies have suggested that overhanging surface structures play an important role, but such structures are not a universal trait among springtails with superhydrophobic cuticles. A novel wetting experiment with a fluorescent dye revealed the extent of wetting on exposed surface structures. Using simple wetting models to describe the composite wetting of the cuticular surface structures results in underestimating the contact angles of water. Including the three-phase line tension allows for a prediction of contact angles in the observed range. The discrepancy between the contact angle predicted by simple models and those observed is especially large in the springtail Cryptopygus clavatus which changes, seasonally, from superhydrophobic to wetting without a large change in surface structure; C. clavatus does not have overhanging surface structures. This large change in observed contact angles can be explained with a modest change of the three-phase line tension.


Author(s):  
Kobyakova I.K. ◽  
Chaika T.Yu.

Мета статті– уточнити основні положення класичної концепції глибинних структур речення в контексті перекладацьких трансформацій і перекладацької майстерності, виявити основні труднощі при використанні концепції глибинних структур під час перекладу і визначити оптимальні шляхи їх вирішення.Методи. У процесі дослідження були використані такі методи: аналізу і синтезу (визначення сутнісних характеристик поняття «глибинна структура»); зіставлень (дослідження моделей трансформації і їх особливостей у процесі перекладу тек-стів економічної спрямованості); системно-структурний (виявлення взаємозв’язків і взаємозалежностей глибинних та поверх-невих структур).Результати. Одна з найважливіших умов успішної перекладацької діяльності – максимально повне збереження змісту тексту в процесі перекладу. В умовах перетворення глибинної структури вихідного тексту на поверхневу структуру мовою перекладу перед перекладачем постає проблема вибору з безлічі допустимих поверхневих структур тієї єдиної, яка най-кращим чином здатна передати не тільки експліцитні, а й імпліцитні компоненти тексту. У процесі перекладу спеціальних галузевих текстів ця задача особливо актуальна. Так, ігнорування фонових знань про національно-культурні традиції ділового спілкування може привести до серйозного спотворення первинного сенсу тексту. А це своєю чергою може стати причиною невдачі ділових контактів. Концепція глибинних і поверхневих структур є досить корисним інструментом, який дає змогу успішно здійснювати перекладацьку діяльність при перекладі складних із семантичної і синтаксичної точок зору конструкцій. Збереження семантики вихідного тексту при максимально повному врахуванні імпліцитного контексту і фонових знань – першочергове завдання перекладача. Теорія глибинних і поверхневих структур є одним з інструментів, який здатен допомогти перекладачеві не тільки структурувати текст, але й максимально ефективно працювати з його семантикою, синтаксисом і фонологією.Суттєвою перекладацькою проблемою залишається пошук найбільш релевантного варіанту поверхневої структури, яка здатна зберегти глибинну структуру тексту-оригіналу з урахуванням усього масиву імпліцитних смислів. З огляду на це, тек-сти економічної спрямованості становлять певний інтерес, оскільки традиції ділового спілкування в різних культурах є свого роду додатковими фоновими знаннями, які необхідно враховувати у процесі перекладу.Висновки. Знання про особливості глибинних і поверхневих структур текстів тих чи інших жанрів дають пере-кладачеві змогу більш якісно здійснювати перекладацьку діяльність. Систематизація перекладацької діяльності в цьо-му контексті передбачає організацію роботи поетапно: спочатку аналізується поверхнева структура вихідного тексту, з використанням правил синтаксичних трансформацій перекладач описує глибинну структуру тексту, а потім з урахуван-ням специфіки мови перекладу переводить цю глибинну структуру в поверхневу структуру мови перекладу. Результати дослідження можуть бути використані в практичній перекладацькій діяльності для забезпечення більш чіткого уявлення про глибинну структуру і семантичної еквівалентності вихідного і цільового текстів. Результати дослідження сприяють удосконаленню практичних напрацювань щодо особливостей роботи з глибинними структурами перекладацьких текстів економічної спрямованості. Подальші перспективи дослідження можуть бути пов’язані з уточненням найбільш доціль-них у конкретних перекладацьких ситуаціях моделей трансформації глибинної структури вихідного тексту в поверхневу структуру тексту перекладу. Purpose. The paper intends to clarify basic provisions of the deep structure as a theoretical construct in the context of translation skills. The purpose of the article is also to identify the main difficulties in using the deep structures concept in the translation process and to determine the best way of addressing them.Methods. The following methods are used in the research process: analysis and synthesis (in determining the substantive characteristics of the concept “deep structure”); comparison (in studying models of transformation and their peculiarities in context of economic texts translating); systemic-structural (in identifying relationships between deep and surface structures).Results. One of the most important conditions for successful translation activities is the preservation of the content in translation. When transforming the deep structure of the source text into a surface structure in the target language, the translator is faced with the problem of choosing from the set of admissible surface structures the only one that is best able to convey not only explicit, but also implicit components of the text. This task is especially relevant when translating specialized industry texts. So, ignoring the background knowledge about the national and cultural traditions of business communication can lead to a serious distortion of the original meaning of the text. And this, in turn, can cause the failure of business contacts. The concept of deep and surface structures is a very useful tool for successfully translating complex semantic and syntactic constructions. Preservation of the original text semantics with maximum consideration of the implicit context and background knowledge is the first task of the translator. The theory of deep and surface structures is one of the tools that can help the translator not only structure the text, but also work as efficiently as possible with its semantics, syntax and phonology.Conclusions. Knowledge of the different genres text’s deep and surface structures peculiarities enables the translator to perform better translation activities. The systematization of translation activities in this context involves the organization of work in phases: first of all the source text surface structure is analyzed, then using the rules of syntactic transformations the translator describes the text deep structure, and then, taking into account the specifics of the translation language, translates this deep structure into the target language surface structure. The study results could be used in practical translation to provide a clearer understanding of the deep structure and to ensure semantic equivalence between the source and the target texts. The study results contribute to the improvement of practices, which are related to the peculiarities of working with deep structures of economic translations. Further prospects for the study could be related to the clarification of the most appropriate models in specific translation situations for transforming the underlying structure of the source text into a surface structure of the text.


2008 ◽  
Vol 2 (1) ◽  
pp. 64-70 ◽  
Author(s):  
Katharina Wiegandt ◽  
Christiane Goepfert ◽  
Teresa Richter ◽  
Daniel Fritsch ◽  
Rolf Janßen ◽  
...  

Tissue engineering approaches for healing cartilage defects are partly limited by the inability to fix cartilage to bone during implantation. To overcome this problem, cartilage can be - already in vitro - generated on a ceramic carrier which serves as bone substitute. In this study, the influence of a hydroxylapatite carrier and its surface structure on the quality of tissue engineered cartilage was investigated. Application of the carrier reduced significantly biomechanical and biochemical properties of the generated tissue. In addition, slight changes in the quality of the formed matrix, in the adhesive strength between cartilage and biomaterial and in attachment and proliferation of a chondrocyte monolayer could be observed for commercial grade carriers, with respect to modified topographies obtained by smooth grinding/polishing. These first results demonstrated an influence of the carrier and its surface structure, but further research is needed for explaining the described effects and for optimization of cartilage-carrier-constructs.


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