SummaryA detailed study of the bionomics ofGlossina longipalpis, Wied., was undertaken at Takoradi, the principal port of the Gold Coast in West Africa, and lasted from February to September 1931.The topography of this country is undulating; the vegetation is of Transition Forest type, intermediate in character between Rain Forest and Savannah Forest, and of an exceedingly dense, homogeneous nature, with a few small glades in the forest, and interrupted by large open marshes on the lower and flatter ground.The climate is remarkably equable, with a low mean annual rainfall between 40 and 45 inches, but constantly high humidities, owing to the moisture-laden sea-winds. There is a double rainy season, the main rains from April to July, and a second shorter period of rainfall in October and November.There is a rich mammalian fauna, with the exception of the larger game animals.Three species ofGlossinaoccur:G. longipalpis, Wied., the commonest, evenly distributed throughout the bush, and the only species dealt with in this paper;G. palpalis, R.-D., confined to water-courses and the edges of lagoons; andG. medicorum, Aust., rarely met with.Two isolated fly-belts, identical in every way, were studied. In one, section A, flies were caught and killed daily; in the other, section B, the control area, the flies were liberated after noting the catches. By September, the tsetse population of A had been reduced to less than one-third of that of B, presumably the effects of catching and killing.The main food hosts of this species were the bushbuck and duiker, ubiquitous in this forest. When these small game animals were driven out of a third fly-belt, section C, by farming and wood-cutting, the fly quickly and completely disappeared. This species was never found to feed on reptiles, although they were common in the fly-belts.Meteorological observations in the open country and in the fly-belts showed a consistently lower temperature and higher humidity in the latter, as well as its greater equity in these factors. The movement of the fly into the open was apparently governed by humidity, the greatest movement taking place when the humidity of the open was within the normal range of fly-belt humidity.By statistical methods, coefficients of correlation were determined for the fly's density-activity and various climatic factors of the fly-belt. The fly showed a high positive correlation with temperature, and a lower correlation with humidity, of which saturation deficit was a better index than atmometer evaporation. There was a significant correlation with sunshine, but none with rainfall. This correlation with humidity was mainly a temperature effect, as was also the correlation with sunshine. Temperature was evidently of major importance. There was a significant negative correlation between fly and relative humidity, measured with a wet and dry bulb hygrometer in a screen in the open.All correlations were greatest when considered direct, the fly catches with simultaneous climatic readings, indicating that these factors influence the activity of the fly in this way, rather than its density. The fly was found to be inactive at temperatures below 74°F., with high humidities of 80 or 90 per cent. or over. This explains the major influence of temperature, shown by the methods of correlations. The temperature range in the fly-belt, during the period of observations, was close to the temperature significant for the fly's activity, and therefore variations produced marked reactions; the humidity range was much closer to the fly's optimum and therefore better tolerated.There is marked daily rhythm in the fly's activity, which is only influenced by climate under extremely unfavourable conditions of temperature or humidity.The distribution ofG. longipalpisin the Gold Coast is dependent upon the humidity of the ecoclimate, rather than upon temperature. It occurs in three main vegetational types—Transition Forest, Inland Savannah Forest, and Coastal Savannah— where the range of humidities is between 50 and 80 per cent. R.H., and temperature between 75° and 85°F. It does not occur in the Rain Forest, where the relative humidity is constantly above 80 per cent., or in northern Savannah, where the humidity is as low as 30 per cent, in the dry season.The main breeding season was from March to July with its maximum in May, at the height of the rains.This species was found infected withTrypanosoma gambiense,T. congolense, andT. vivaxat Takoradi, and is probably second in importance toG. palpalisas a vector of sleeping sickness in the Gold Coast, but at present of less importance thanG. palpalisorG. tachinoidesin the transmission of trypanosomiasis of stock.The receding of the Ashanti forest and the present development of the Colony may cause even greater contact between this species of tsetse and man. The main policy for control should lie in improving and controlling the natives' methods of cultivating the bush. Farms should be as close to the village as possible, contiguous, and kept under cultivation, if possible, permanently. Clearings should be made of at least 100 yards width round bush villages, and of at least 200 yards width round important towns. Small clearings and isolated farms are considered a danger.
Tree phenology in montane forests of southern Ecuador can be explained by precipitation, radiation and photoperiodic control