Instrumentation and Computation
The benefit to society arising from developments in instrumentation and computation can be judged primarily by the advances in knowledge and understanding generated by their application in different branches of science, covered in the other papers in this symposium. Without advances in instrumentation none of these advances is possible; developments in instrumentation and in image interpretation are therefore fundamental to and precede scientific advances in fields in which knowledge of structure is important. There is little doubt that the revolutionary first step was the development of the transmission electron microscope (TEM) in 1931 by Ernst Ruska; a second was the development of the scanning electron microscope (SEM); and the third the introduction of the scanning tunnelling microscope (STM) for high resolution surface imaging, by Binnig and Rohrer.The TEM and SEM have undergone continuous developments over the last 50 years or so, and have had a far-reaching impact in a wide range of disciplines; the STM is a relative newcomer but no doubt it too will have an increasing impact in furthering our understanding of solids and surfaces in particular. Once the basic instruments became available subsequent developments have been driven by the demands of the scientific disciplines in which these instruments have been applied. Many of the new developments in instrumentation and interpretation have been pioneered by the users themselves, and these in turn have led to modifications in commercial instruments to make such advances in technique available to the user community as a whole. Other developments have been initiated directly by the manufacturers as a result of a perceived need. There has been and continues to be a close interaction between the developers of hardware (not only of electron microscopes but also of ancillary equipment, e.g. microanalysis attachments, image processing equipment, specialist specimen stages, and specimen preparation facilities) and the users, leading to extensions in the range of applications and the types of information which can be obtained by electron microscopy. The following examples from the developments of electron microscopy in Materials Science illustrate these interactions and the particular advances arising from specific developments: