ABSTRACTGenomic data predict that, in addition to oxygen, the bacterial plant pathogenRalstonia solanacearumcan use nitrate (NO3−), nitrite (NO2−), nitric oxide (NO), and nitrous oxide (N2O) as terminal electron acceptors (TEAs). Genes encoding inorganic nitrogen reduction were highly expressed during tomato bacterial wilt disease, when the pathogen grows in xylem vessels. Direct measurements found that tomato xylem fluid was low in oxygen, especially in plants infected by R. solanacearum. Xylem fluid contained ~25 mM NO3−, corresponding to R. solanacearum's optimal NO3−concentration for anaerobic growthin vitro. We tested the hypothesis that R. solanacearum uses inorganic nitrogen species to respire and grow during pathogenesis by making deletion mutants that each lacked a step in nitrate respiration (ΔnarG), denitrification (ΔaniA, ΔnorB, and ΔnosZ), or NO detoxification (ΔhmpX). TheΔnarG,ΔaniA, andΔnorBmutants grew poorly on NO3−compared to the wild type, and they had reduced adenylate energy charge levels under anaerobiosis. While NarG-dependent NO3−respiration directly enhanced growth, AniA-dependent NO2−reduction did not. NO2−and NO inhibited growth in culture, and their removal depended on denitrification and NO detoxification. Thus, NO3−acts as a TEA, but the resulting NO2−and NO likely do not. None of the mutants grew as well as the wild typein planta, and strains lacking AniA (NO2−reductase) or HmpX (NO detoxification) had reduced virulence on tomato. Thus, R. solanacearum exploits host NO3−to respire, grow, and cause disease. Degradation of NO2−and NO is also important for successful infection and depends on denitrification and NO detoxification systems.IMPORTANCEThe plant-pathogenic bacteriumRalstonia solanacearumcauses bacterial wilt, one of the world's most destructive crop diseases. This pathogen's explosive growth in plant vascular xylem is poorly understood. We used biochemical and genetic approaches to show that R. solanacearum rapidly depletes oxygen in host xylem but can then respire using host nitrate as a terminal electron acceptor. The microbe uses its denitrification pathway to detoxify the reactive nitrogen species nitrite (a product of nitrate respiration) and nitric oxide (a plant defense signal). Detoxification may play synergistic roles in bacterial wilt virulence by converting the host's chemical weapon into an energy source. Mutant bacterial strains lacking elements of the denitrification pathway could not grow as well as the wild type in tomato plants, and some mutants were also reduced in virulence. Our results show how a pathogen's metabolic activity can alter the host environment in ways that increase pathogen success.
A cbb3-Type Cytochrome C Oxidase Contributes to Ralstonia solanacearum R3bv2 Growth in Microaerobic Environments and to Bacterial Wilt Disease Development in Tomato
