scholarly journals Social distancing decreases an individual’s likelihood of contracting COVID-19

2021 ◽  
Vol 118 (8) ◽  
pp. e2023131118 ◽  
Author(s):  
Russell H. Fazio ◽  
Benjamin C. Ruisch ◽  
Courtney A. Moore ◽  
Javier A. Granados Samayoa ◽  
Shelby T. Boggs ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Real World ◽  
Past Research ◽  
Self Report ◽  
Aggregate Level ◽  
Unique Form ◽  
Social Distancing ◽  
Level Data ◽  
Specific Individual ◽  
The Individual ◽  
Report Measure

Past research has established the value of social distancing as a means of deterring the spread of COVID-19 largely by examining aggregate level data. Locales in which efforts were undertaken to encourage distancing experienced reductions in their rate of transmission. However, these aggregate results tell us little about the effectiveness of social distancing at the level of the individual, which is the question addressed by the current research. Four months after participating in a study assessing their social distancing behavior, 2,120 participants indicated whether they had contracted COVID-19. Importantly, the assessment of social distancing involved not only a self-report measure of how strictly participants had followed social distancing recommendations but also a series of virtual behavior measures of social distancing. These simulations presented participants with graphical depictions mirroring specific real-world scenarios, asking them to position themselves in relation to others in the scene. Individuals’ social distancing behavior, particularly as assessed by the virtual behavior measure, predicted whether they contracted COVID-19 during the intervening 4 mo. This was true when considering only participants who reported having tested positively for the virus and when considering additional participants who, although untested, believed that they had contracted the virus. The findings offer a unique form of additional evidence as to why individuals should practice social distancing. What the individual does matters, not only for the health of the collective, but also for the specific individual.

scholarly journals Avoiding versus contracting COVID-19: On the effectiveness of social distancing at the level of the individual

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Russell H. Fazio ◽  
Benjamin C. Ruisch ◽  
Courtney A. Moore ◽  
Javier A. Granados Samayoa ◽  
Shelby T. Boggs ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Real World ◽  
Past Research ◽  
Self Report ◽  
Aggregate Level ◽  
Unique Form ◽  
Social Distancing ◽  
Level Data ◽  
Specific Individual ◽  
The Individual ◽  
Report Measure

AbstractPast research has established the value of social distancing as a means of deterring the spread of COVID-19 largely by examining aggregate level data. Locales in which efforts were undertaken to encourage distancing experienced reductions in their rate of transmission. However, these aggregate results tell us little about the effectiveness of social distancing at the level of the individual, which is the question addressed by the current research. Four months after participating in a study assessing their social distancing behavior, 2,120 participants indicated whether they had contracted COVID-19. Importantly, the assessment of social distancing involved not only a self-report measure of how strictly participants had followed social distancing recommendations, but also a series of virtual behavior measures of social distancing. These simulations presented participants with graphical depictions mirroring specific real-world scenarios, asking them to position themselves in relation to others in the scene. Individuals’ social distancing behavior, particularly as assessed by the virtual behavior measure, predicted whether they contracted COVID-19 during the intervening four months. This was true when considering only participants who reported having tested positively for the virus and when considering additional participants who, although untested, believed that they had contracted the virus. The findings offer a unique form of additional evidence as to why individuals should practice social distancing. What the individual does matters, not only for the health of the collective, but also for the specific individual.

scholarly journals Who is (not) complying with the U. S. social distancing directive and why? Testing a general framework of compliance with virtual measures of social distancing

PLoS ONE ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 16 (2) ◽  
pp. e0247520 ◽  
Author(s):  
Russell H. Fazio ◽  
Benjamin C. Ruisch ◽  
Courtney A. Moore ◽  
Javier A. Granados Samayoa ◽  
Shelby T. Boggs ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Public Service ◽  
Real World ◽  
Behavioral Change ◽  
General Framework ◽  
Belief Systems ◽  
Self Report ◽  
Social Distancing ◽  
The Social ◽  
Essential Components ◽  
Report Measure

A study involving over 2000 online participants (US residents) tested a general framework regarding compliance with a directive in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. The study featured not only a self-report measure of social distancing but also virtual behavior measures—simulations that presented participants with graphical depictions mirroring multiple real-world scenarios and asked them to position themselves in relation to others in the scene. The conceptual framework highlights three essential components of a directive: (1) the source, some entity is advocating for a behavioral change; (2) the surrounding context, the directive is in response to some challenge; and (3) the target, the persons to whom the directive is addressed. Belief systems relevant to each of these three components are predicted, and were found, to relate to compliance with the social distancing directive. The implications of the findings for public service campaigns encouraging people to engage in social distancing are discussed.

scholarly journals Connecting Self-Reported Social Distancing to Real-World Behavior at the Individual and U.S. State Level

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Anton Gollwitzer ◽  
Cameron Martel ◽  
Julia Marshall ◽  
Johanna Marie Höhs ◽  
John A. Bargh
Keyword(s):  
Real World ◽  
Smart Phone ◽  
State Level ◽  
Self Report ◽  
Actual Behavior ◽  
Group Level ◽  
Daily Step ◽  
Social Distancing ◽  
Step Counts ◽  
The Individual

Social distancing is currently the single most effective method to reduce the spread of COVID-19. As such, researchers across varying fields are rushing to identify variables that predict social distancing and which interventions can heighten social distancing. Yet, much of this research relies on self-report measures (in part because of social distancing guidelines themselves). In two studies we examine whether self-reported social distancing overlaps with real-world behavior. In Study 1, individuals’ self-reported social distancing predicted decreased movement as quantified by participants’ average daily step-counts (assessed via smartphone pedometers). For every increase of one in self-reported social distancing (z-scored), individuals’ daily steps decreased by approximately 21% (Exp(B) ~ .79). In Study 2, the degree of self-reported social distancing in different U.S. States predicted the degree to which people in those States reduced their overall movement and travel to non-essential retail as assessed by ~17 million smart-phone GPS coordinates (.34 < rs < .57). Collectively, our results indicate that self-report measures of social distancing track actual behavior both at the individual and at the group level.

Missing Data in Research on Youth and Family Programs

2021 ◽  
pp. 003329412110268
Author(s):  
Jaime Ballard ◽  
Adeya Richmond ◽  
Suzanne van den Hoogenhof ◽  
Lynne Borden ◽  
Daniel Francis Perkins
Keyword(s):  
Missing Data ◽  
Statistical Methods ◽  
Self Report ◽  
Program Participation ◽  
Multilevel Data ◽  
Individual Level ◽  
Level Data ◽  
Before And After ◽  
Post Test ◽  
The Individual

Background Multilevel data can be missing at the individual level or at a nested level, such as family, classroom, or program site. Increased knowledge of higher-level missing data is necessary to develop evaluation design and statistical methods to address it. Methods Participants included 9,514 individuals participating in 47 youth and family programs nationwide who completed multiple self-report measures before and after program participation. Data were marked as missing or not missing at the item, scale, and wave levels for both individuals and program sites. Results Site-level missing data represented a substantial portion of missing data, ranging from 0–46% of missing data at pre-test and 35–71% of missing data at post-test. Youth were the most likely to be missing data, although site-level data did not differ by the age of participants served. In this dataset youth had the most surveys to complete, so their missing data could be due to survey fatigue. Conclusions Much of the missing data for individuals can be explained by the site not administering those questions or scales. These results suggest a need for statistical methods that account for site-level missing data, and for research design methods to reduce the prevalence of site-level missing data or reduce its impact. Researchers can generate buy-in with sites during the community collaboration stage, assessing problematic items for revision or removal and need for ongoing site support, particularly at post-test. We recommend that researchers conducting multilevel data report the amount and mechanism of missing data at each level.

Explaining Senate Election Outcomes

1988 ◽  
Vol 82 (2) ◽  
pp. 385-403 ◽  
Author(s):  
Alan I. Abramowitz
Keyword(s):  
Party Competition ◽  
Aggregate Level ◽  
Unit Of Analysis ◽  
Senate Elections ◽  
Level Data ◽  
Candidate Characteristics ◽  
Political Conditions ◽  
Senate Election ◽  
Election Results ◽  
The Individual

Aggregate-level data are used in this analysis to explain the outcomes of Senate elections between 1974 and 1986. Using the individual Senate contest as the unit of analysis permits estimating the relative influence of a wide variety of factors on Senate election results including political characteristics of states, characteristics of the candidates, and national political conditions. Of these factors candidate characteristics had the strongest impact on the outcomes of Senate elections. The importance of candidate characteristics has had two major consequences for Senate elections. First, two-party competition has spread to every region of the country: in Senate elections, no state can be considered safe for either party. Second, money is probably now more important than ever, especially for challengers and candidates for open seats.

scholarly journals Linking Self-Reported Social Distancing to Real-World Behavior During the COVID-19 Pandemic

2021 ◽  
pp. 194855062110181
Author(s):  
Anton Gollwitzer ◽  
Killian McLoughlin ◽  
Cameron Martel ◽  
Julia Marshall ◽  
Johanna M. Höhs ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Real World ◽  
State Level ◽  
Self Report ◽  
Group Level ◽  
Daily Step ◽  
Social Distancing ◽  
Step Counts ◽  
Objective Reduction ◽  
The U.S

In an effort to combat COVID-19 and future pandemics, researchers have attempted to identify the factors underlying social distancing. Yet, much of this research relies on self-report measures. In two studies, we examine whether self-reported social distancing predicts objective distancing behavior. In Study 1, individuals’ self-reported social distancing predicted decreased mobility (assessed via smartphone step counts) during the COVID-19 pandemic. While participants high in self-reported distancing (+1 SD) exhibited a 33% reduction in daily step counts, those low in distancing (−1 SD) exhibited only a 3% reduction. Study 2 extended these findings to the group level. Self-reported social distancing at the U.S. state level accounted for 20% of the variance in states’ objective reduction in overall movement and visiting nonessential services (calculated via the GPS coordinates of ∼15 million people). Collectively, our results indicate that self-reported social distancing tracks actual social distancing behavior.

scholarly journals Who is (Not) Complying with the Social Distancing Directive and Why? Testing a General Framework of Compliance with Multiple Measures of Social Distancing

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Russell H. Fazio ◽  
Benjamin C. Ruisch ◽  
Courtney A. Moore ◽  
Javier A. Granados Samayoa ◽  
Shelby T. Boggs ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Public Service ◽  
Behavioral Change ◽  
General Framework ◽  
Belief Systems ◽  
Self Report ◽  
Behavioral Measures ◽  
Social Distancing ◽  
The Social ◽  
Essential Components ◽  
Report Measure

AbstractA study involving over 2000 online participants tested a general framework regarding compliance with a directive in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. The study featured not only a self-report measure of social distancing but also behavioral measures -- simulations that presented participants with graphical depictions mirroring multiple real-world scenarios and asked them to position themselves in relation to others in the scene. The conceptual framework highlights three essential components of a directive: (1) the source, some entity is advocating for a behavioral change; (2) the surrounding context, the directive is in response to some challenge; and (3) the target, the persons to whom the directive is addressed. Belief systems relevant to each of these three components are predicted, and were found, to relate to compliance with the social distancing directive. The implications of the findings for public service campaigns encouraging people to engage in social distancing are discussed.

Externalizing Behavior and Psychopathy: A Social Relations Analysis

2019 ◽  
Vol 33 (3) ◽  
pp. 310-325 ◽  
Author(s):  
David K. Marcus ◽  
Samantha L. Robinson ◽  
Alexander E. Eichenbaum
Keyword(s):  
Problem Behaviors ◽  
Social Relations ◽  
Academic Dishonesty ◽  
Externalizing Behavior ◽  
Externalizing Behaviors ◽  
Self Report ◽  
Psychopathic Personality ◽  
Individual Level ◽  
The Individual ◽  
Report Measure

Most conceptualizations of psychopathy emphasize its interpersonal consequences, yet most research on psychopathy has been conducted at the individual level. In small groups, well-acquainted members of sororities and fraternities (N = 111) rated one another and themselves on a variety of externalizing behaviors (e.g., cheating, risky sex), and completed a self-report measure of psychopathy. There was consensus about the extent to which members of the groups engaged in these behaviors. The associations between these target effects and respondents' self-reports suggest that these consensual judgments were reasonably accurate. Individuals who reported higher levels of psychopathic personality traits were seen as more likely to engage in externalizing behaviors, with self-centered impulsivity most strongly associated with these behaviors. Although fearless dominance was unrelated to self-reported externalizing behaviors, it was related to peers' ratings of marijuana use, academic dishonesty, and future legal troubles, suggesting that individuals high in fearless dominance may underreport their problem behaviors.

Assessing Daily Stress with the Short Stress State Questionnaire (SSSQ): Relationships with Cognitive Slips-Failures

2005 ◽  
Vol 49 (10) ◽  
pp. 886-890 ◽  
Author(s):  
William S. Helton ◽  
Diana Fields ◽  
Joseph A. Thoreson
Keyword(s):  
Stress State ◽  
Task Engagement ◽  
Self Report ◽  
Factor Analyses ◽  
Daily Stress ◽  
Reliable Measure ◽  
Stress Task ◽  
The Individual ◽  
P Factor ◽  
Report Measure

Stress is an important aspect of operational settings. This article presents a study providing further psychometric and validation evidence of a short multidimensional self-report measure of stress state, the Short Stress State Questionnaire (SSSQ; Helton, 2004) based on the Dundee Stress State Questionnaire (DSSQ; Matthews et al., 1999, 2002). Participants filled out the SSSQ twice daily for 70 days, once in the morning and once at night. They also reported daily cognitive slipsfailures. Chain-P Factor Analyses of the individual items for both pre and post assessments were conducted and the relationships between the SSSQ factors and daily self-reported cognitive slipsfailures were examined. The factor analyses, as previously indicated by Helton (2004), differentiated three aspects of subjective stress: Task Engagement, Distress, and Worry. Daily post-Distress and post-Worry correlated moderately with cognitive slips. The 24-item SSSQ appears to be a reliable measure of daily stress state, potentially useful in naturalistic studies.

scholarly journals The Ecological Fallacy Revisited: Aggregate- versus Individual-level Findings on Economics and Elections, and Sociotropic Voting

1983 ◽  
Vol 77 (1) ◽  
pp. 92-111 ◽  
Author(s):  
Gerald H. Kramer
Keyword(s):  
Aggregate Level ◽  
Cross Sectional ◽  
Macroeconomic Conditions ◽  
Individual Level ◽  
General Welfare ◽  
Level Data ◽  
Behavioral Parameters ◽  
The Individual ◽  
Welfare Changes ◽  
True Values

Several aggregate-level studies have found a relationship between macroeconomic conditions and election outcomes, operating in intuitively plausible directions. More recent survey-based studies, however, have been unable to detect any comparable relationship operating at the individual-voter level. This persistent discrepancy is puzzling. One recently proposed explanation for it is that voters actually behave in an altruistic or “sociotropic” fashion, responding to economic events only as they affect the general welfare, rather than in terms of self-interested “pocketbook” considerations.It is argued here that the discrepancies between the macro- and microlevel studies are a statistical artifact, arising from the fact that observable changes in individual welfare actually consist of two unobservable components, a government-induced (and politically relevant) component, and an exogenous component caused by life-cycle and other politically irrelevant factors. Because of this, individual level cross-sectional estimates of the effects of welfare changes on voting are badly biased and are essentially unrelated to the true values of the behavioral parameters of interest: they will generally be considerable underestimates and may even be of the wrong sign. An aggregate-level time-series analysis, on the other hand, will often yield reasonably good (if somewhat attenuated) estimates of the underlying individual-level effects of interest. Therefore, in this case, individual behavior is best investigated with aggregate- rather than individual-level data.It is also shown that the evidence for sociotropic voting is artifactual, in the sense that the various findings and evidence which ostensibly show sociotropic behavior are all perfectly compatible with the null hypothesis of self-interested, pocketbook voting.

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