The Relationship between Word Difficulty and Frequency: A Response to Hashimoto (2021)

SummaryBackground: Few quantitative studies have been conducted on the relationship between society and its languages. Individuals with autistic spectrum disorder (ASD) are known to experience social hardships, and a wide range of clinical information about their quality of life has been provided through numerous narrative analyses. However, the narratives of ASD patients have thus far been examined mainly through qualitative approaches.Objectives: In this study, we analyzed adults with ASD to quantitatively examine the relationship between language abilities and ASD severity scores.Methods: We generated phonetic transcriptions of speeches by 16 ASD adults at an ASD workshop, and divided the participants into 2 groups according to their Social Responsiveness ScaleTM, 2nd Edition (SRSTM-2) scores (where higher scores represent more severe ASD): Group A comprised high-scoring ASD adults (SRSTM-2 score: 76) and Group B comprised low- and intermediate-scoring ASD adults (SRSTM-2 score: < 76). Using natural language processing (NLP)-based analytical methods, the narratives were converted into numerical data according to four language ability indicators, and the relationships between the language ability scores and ASD severity scores were compared.Results and Discussion: Group A showed a marginally negative correlation with the level of Japanese word difficulty (p < .10), while the “social cognition” subscale of the SRSTM-2 score showed a significantly negative correlation (p < .05) with word difficulty. When comparing only male participants, Group A demonstrated a significantly lower correlation with word difficulty level than Group B (p < .10).Conclusion: Social communication was found to be strongly associated with the level of word difficulty in speech. The clinical applications of these findings may be available in the near future, and there is a need for further detailed study on language metrics designed for ASD adults.

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Word Frequency as a Predictor of Students' Reading Vocabularies

Journal of Reading Behavior ◽

10.1080/10862968009547362 ◽

1980 ◽

Vol 12 (2) ◽

pp. 117-127 ◽

Cited By ~ 11

Author(s):

Michael F. Graves ◽

Judith A. Boettcher ◽

Judith L. Peacock ◽

Randall J. Ryder

Keyword(s):

Word Frequency ◽

Vocabulary Development ◽

Control Word ◽

Word Knowledge ◽

Vocabulary Test ◽

Regression Slope ◽

Twelfth Grade ◽

Word Difficulty ◽

The Relationship

This paper reports the results of a study of word frequency as a predictor of students' reading vocabularies and the effects of grade, ability, and sex on word knowledge. Subjects, 432 seventh through twelfth grade students, received an 86 item vocabulary test on which each word represented a frequency block of 1,000 words (1st thousand most frequent, 2nd thousand most frequent … 86th thousand most frequent). Results indicated that correct responses tend to decline rapidly with less frequent words (regression slope = −.47) but that the relationship between frequency and word knowledge is not a strong one ( r = .44). Results further indicated significant differences (p < .001) due to frequency, grade and ability but none due to sex. Implications for using frequency to control word difficulty and questions raised about vocabulary development are discussed.

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Interstellar gas in the central region of the Galaxy

Symposium - International Astronomical Union ◽

10.1017/s0074180900101032 ◽

1967 ◽

Vol 31 ◽

pp. 239-251 ◽

Cited By ~ 3

Author(s):

F. J. Kerr

Keyword(s):

Central Region ◽

Galactic Plane ◽

Neutral Hydrogen ◽

Continuum Emission ◽

Galactic Centre ◽

Interstellar Gas ◽

Hydrogen Recombination ◽

The Galaxy ◽

Centre Region ◽

The Relationship

A review is given of information on the galactic-centre region obtained from recent observations of the 21-cm line from neutral hydrogen, the 18-cm group of OH lines, a hydrogen recombination line at 6 cm wavelength, and the continuum emission from ionized hydrogen.Both inward and outward motions are important in this region, in addition to rotation. Several types of observation indicate the presence of material in features inclined to the galactic plane. The relationship between the H and OH concentrations is not yet clear, but a rough picture of the central region can be proposed.

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The relationship of the scleractinian corals to the rugose corals

Paleobiology ◽

10.1017/s0094837300025707 ◽

1980 ◽

Vol 6 (02) ◽

pp. 146-160 ◽

Cited By ~ 29

Author(s):

William A. Oliver

Keyword(s):

Critical Points ◽

Scleractinian Corals ◽

Convincing Evidence ◽

Early Triassic ◽

Rugose Corals ◽

History Of ◽

The Subject ◽

Relationship Of ◽

The Relationship ◽

Biologic Factors

The Mesozoic-Cenozoic coral Order Scleractinia has been suggested to have originated or evolved (1) by direct descent from the Paleozoic Order Rugosa or (2) by the development of a skeleton in members of one of the anemone groups that probably have existed throughout Phanerozoic time. In spite of much work on the subject, advocates of the direct descent hypothesis have failed to find convincing evidence of this relationship. Critical points are:(1) Rugosan septal insertion is serial; Scleractinian insertion is cyclic; no intermediate stages have been demonstrated. Apparent intermediates are Scleractinia having bilateral cyclic insertion or teratological Rugosa.(2) There is convincing evidence that the skeletons of many Rugosa were calcitic and none are known to be or to have been aragonitic. In contrast, the skeletons of all living Scleractinia are aragonitic and there is evidence that fossil Scleractinia were aragonitic also. The mineralogic difference is almost certainly due to intrinsic biologic factors.(3) No early Triassic corals of either group are known. This fact is not compelling (by itself) but is important in connection with points 1 and 2, because, given direct descent, both changes took place during this only stage in the history of the two groups in which there are no known corals.

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Choosing a Markov blanket

Behavioral and Brain Sciences ◽

10.1017/s0140525x19002632 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 43 ◽

Author(s):

Thomas Parr

Keyword(s):

Markov Blanket ◽

Target Article ◽

The Relationship

Abstract This commentary focuses upon the relationship between two themes in the target article: the ways in which a Markov blanket may be defined and the role of precision and salience in mediating the interactions between what is internal and external to a system. These each rest upon the different perspectives we might take while “choosing” a Markov blanket.

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Tinkering with cognitive gadgets: Cultural evolutionary psychology meets active inference

Behavioral and Brain Sciences ◽

10.1017/s0140525x19001018 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 42 ◽

Author(s):

Paul Benjamin Badcock ◽

Axel Constant ◽

Maxwell James Désormeau Ramstead

Keyword(s):

Evolutionary Psychology ◽

Research Program ◽

Active Inference ◽

Innovative Research ◽

Cognitive Faculties ◽

Cultural Evolutionary ◽

The Relationship

Abstract Cognitive Gadgets offers a new, convincing perspective on the origins of our distinctive cognitive faculties, coupled with a clear, innovative research program. Although we broadly endorse Heyes’ ideas, we raise some concerns about her characterisation of evolutionary psychology and the relationship between biology and culture, before discussing the potential fruits of examining cognitive gadgets through the lens of active inference.

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Radiation Damage, Contrast and Statistics in High Resolution Biological Electron Microscopy

Proceedings, annual meeting, Electron Microscopy Society of America ◽

10.1017/s0424820100068291 ◽

1970 ◽

Vol 28 ◽

pp. 260-261

Author(s):

Robert M. Glaeser

Keyword(s):

High Resolution ◽

Particle Flux ◽

Unit Area ◽

Signal To Noise ◽

Resolution Image ◽

High Resolution Image ◽

Pass Through ◽

Counting Statistics ◽

The Relationship ◽

Picture Element

It is well known that a large flux of electrons must pass through a specimen in order to obtain a high resolution image while a smaller particle flux is satisfactory for a low resolution image. The minimum particle flux that is required depends upon the contrast in the image and the signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio at which the data are considered acceptable. For a given S/N associated with statistical fluxtuations, the relationship between contrast and “counting statistics” is s131_eqn1, where C = contrast; r2 is the area of a picture element corresponding to the resolution, r; N is the number of electrons incident per unit area of the specimen; f is the fraction of electrons that contribute to formation of the image, relative to the total number of electrons incident upon the object.

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Skeletal elements of crinoid echinoderms: High-resolution structural and microanalytical results

Proceedings, annual meeting, Electron Microscopy Society of America ◽

10.1017/s0424820100074768 ◽

1983 ◽

Vol 41 ◽

pp. 194-195

Author(s):

D. F. Blake ◽

L. F. Allard ◽

D. R. Peacor

Keyword(s):

High Resolution ◽

Marine Invertebrates ◽

Sea Urchins ◽

Structural Features ◽

Sea Stars ◽

High Resolution Tem ◽

Relationship Of ◽

The Relationship ◽

Insight Into

Echinodermata is a phylum of marine invertebrates which has been extant since Cambrian time (c.a. 500 m.y. before the present). Modern examples of echinoderms include sea urchins, sea stars, and sea lilies (crinoids). The endoskeletons of echinoderms are composed of plates or ossicles (Fig. 1) which are with few exceptions, porous, single crystals of high-magnesian calcite. Despite their single crystal nature, fracture surfaces do not exhibit the near-perfect {10.4} cleavage characteristic of inorganic calcite. This paradoxical mix of biogenic and inorganic features has prompted much recent work on echinoderm skeletal crystallography. Furthermore, fossil echinoderm hard parts comprise a volumetrically significant portion of some marine limestones sequences. The ultrastructural and microchemical characterization of modern skeletal material should lend insight into: 1). The nature of the biogenic processes involved, for example, the relationship of Mg heterogeneity to morphological and structural features in modern echinoderm material, and 2). The nature of the diagenetic changes undergone by their ancient, fossilized counterparts. In this study, high resolution TEM (HRTEM), high voltage TEM (HVTEM), and STEM microanalysis are used to characterize tha ultrastructural and microchemical composition of skeletal elements of the modern crinoid Neocrinus blakei.

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Ultrastructural Correlations between Clonal Human Tumor Colonies and in Vivo Neoplasms

Proceedings, annual meeting, Electron Microscopy Society of America ◽

10.1017/s0424820100053711 ◽

1982 ◽

Vol 40 ◽

pp. 210-211

Author(s):

M.J. Murphy ◽

R.R. Price ◽

J.C. Sloman

Keyword(s):

Cultured Cells ◽

Human Tumor ◽

Cell Type ◽

Tumor Mass ◽

Initial Cell ◽

Cloning Assay ◽

Human Tumor Cloning ◽

The Relationship

The in vitro human tumor cloning assay originally described by Salmon and Hamburger has been applied recently to the investigation of differential anti-tumor drug sensitivities over a broad range of human neoplasms. A major problem in the acceptance of this technique has been the question of the relationship between the cultured cells and the original patient tumor, i.e., whether the colonies that develop derive from the neoplasm or from some other cell type within the initial cell population. A study of the ultrastructural morphology of the cultured cells vs. patient tumor has therefore been undertaken to resolve this question. Direct correlation was assured by division of a common tumor mass at surgical resection, one biopsy being fixed for TEM studies, the second being rapidly transported to the laboratory for culture.

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The Effects of Drying Techniques on Clay-Rich Soil Texture

Proceedings, annual meeting, Electron Microscopy Society of America ◽

10.1017/s0424820100052341 ◽

1974 ◽

Vol 32 ◽

pp. 466-467

Author(s):

T. G. Naymik

Keyword(s):

Critical Point ◽

Liquid Nitrogen ◽

Liquid Nitrogen Temperature ◽

Drying Methods ◽

Air Drying ◽

Freeze Dried ◽

Critical Point Drying ◽

Set Up ◽

The Relationship ◽

Quartz Grains

Three techniques were incorporated for drying clay-rich specimens: air-drying, freeze-drying and critical point drying. In air-drying, the specimens were set out for several days to dry or were placed in an oven (80°F) for several hours. The freeze-dried specimens were frozen by immersion in liquid nitrogen or in isopentane at near liquid nitrogen temperature and then were immediately placed in the freeze-dry vacuum chamber. The critical point specimens were molded in agar immediately after sampling. When the agar had set up the dehydration series, water-alcohol-amyl acetate-CO2 was carried out. The objectives were to compare the fabric plasmas (clays and precipitates), fabricskeletons (quartz grains) and the relationship between them for each drying technique. The three drying methods are not only applicable to the study of treated soils, but can be incorporated into all SEM clay soil studies.

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