scholarly journals How and why do bees buzz? Implications for buzz pollination

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Mario Vallejo-Marín
Keyword(s):  
Energy Use ◽  
Mechanical Vibration ◽  
Biomechanical Properties ◽  
Buzz Pollination ◽  
Pollinator Behaviour ◽  
Flight Muscles ◽  
Thoracic Muscles ◽  
Flower Handling ◽  
Fine Tune ◽  
Rate Of Activation

Abstract Buzz pollination encompasses the evolutionary convergence of specialised floral morphologies and pollinator behaviour in which bees use vibrations (floral buzzes) to remove pollen. Floral buzzes are one of several types of vibrations produced by bees using their thoracic muscles. Here I review how bees can produce these different types of vibrations and discuss the implications of this mechanistic understanding for buzz pollination. I propose that bee buzzes can be categorised according to their mode of production and deployment into: (1) thermogenic, which generate heat with little mechanical vibration; (2) flight buzzes, which combined with wing deployment and thoracic vibration, power flight, and (3) non-flight buzzes in which the thorax vibrates but the wings remain folded, and include floral, defence, mating, communication, and nest-building buzzes. I hypothesise that the characteristics of non-flight buzzes, including floral buzzes, can be modulated by bees via modification of the biomechanical properties of the thorax through activity of auxiliary muscles, changing the rate of activation of the indirect flight muscles, and modifying flower handling behaviours. Thus, bees should be able to fine-tune mechanical properties of their floral vibrations, including frequency and amplitude, depending on flower characteristics and pollen availability to optimise energy use and pollen collection.

scholarly journals Myosin functional domains encoded by alternative exons are expressed in specific thoracic muscles of Drosophila.

1991 ◽  
Vol 114 (2) ◽  
pp. 263-276 ◽  
Author(s):  
G A Hastings ◽  
C P Emerson
Keyword(s):  
In Situ Hybridization ◽  
Direct Flight ◽  
Alternatively Spliced ◽  
Gene Transcripts ◽  
Flight Muscles ◽  
Thoracic Muscles ◽  
Muscle Myosin ◽  
Muscle Specificity ◽  
Esophageal Muscle

The Drosophila 36B muscle myosin heavy chain (MHC) gene has five sets of alternatively spliced exons that encode functionally important domains of the MHC protein and provide a combinatorial potential for expression of as many as 480 MHC isoforms. In this study, in situ hybridization analysis has been used to examine the complexity and muscle specificity of MHC isoform expression in the fibrillar indirect flight muscle (IFM), the tubular direct flight muscles (DFM) and tubular tergal depressor of the trochanter muscle (TDT), and the visceral esophageal muscle in the adult thorax. Our results show that alternative splicing of the MHC gene transcripts is precisely regulated in these thoracic muscles, which express three MHC isoforms. Individual thoracic muscles each express transcripts of only one isoform, as detectable by in situ hybridization. An apparently novel fourth MHC isoform, with sequence homology to the rod but not to the head domain of the 36B MHC, is expressed in two direct flight muscles. These findings form a basis for transgenic experiments designed to analyze the muscle-specific functions of MHC domains encoded by alternative exons.

scholarly journals PLoS Computational Biology Issue Image | Vol. 17(9) October 2021

2021 ◽  
Vol 17 (9) ◽  
pp. ev17.i09
Keyword(s):  
Open Access ◽  
Computational Biology ◽  
Buzz Pollination ◽  
Tomato Plants ◽  
Creative Commons ◽  
Link Type ◽  
Minas Gerais State ◽  
Audible Sound ◽  
Flight Muscles ◽  
Poricidal Anthers

The tomato flowers are characterized by possessing poricidal anthers, which restrict the exit of the pollen to a tiny opening on the apex of the anther. To extract pollen efficiently, some visiting bees grasp the anthers and quickly contracting their flight muscles, producing vibrations and an audible sound. The vibrations are transferred to the anthers, shaking and stimulating the pollen inside them to leave by the pores, a phenomenon known as floral sonication or buzz-pollination. DOI: pcbi.1009426 Image Credit: Priscila de CE1;ssia Souza AraFA;jo (co-author of the manuscript) photographed this bee visiting flowers of tomato plants grown at the experimental fields of the Federal University of ViE7;osa (Minas Gerais State, Brazil). We confirm that the image can publish under the Creative Commons Attribution License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). The authors own the copyright for the image and confirm that agree with open Access License of PLOS Computational Biology.

scholarly journals Viscoelasticity Imaging of Biological Tissues and Single Cells Using Shear Wave Propagation

2021 ◽  
Vol 9 ◽  
Author(s):  
Hongliang Li ◽  
Guillaume Flé ◽  
Manish Bhatt ◽  
Zhen Qu ◽  
Sajad Ghazavi ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Wave Propagation ◽  
Shear Wave ◽  
Soft Tissues ◽  
Acoustic Radiation ◽  
Single Cells ◽  
Shear Waves ◽  
Mechanical Vibration ◽  
Shear Wave Elastography ◽  
Biomechanical Properties ◽  
Biological Tissues

Changes in biomechanical properties of biological soft tissues are often associated with physiological dysfunctions. Since biological soft tissues are hydrated, viscoelasticity is likely suitable to represent its solid-like behavior using elasticity and fluid-like behavior using viscosity. Shear wave elastography is a non-invasive imaging technology invented for clinical applications that has shown promise to characterize various tissue viscoelasticity. It is based on measuring and analyzing velocities and attenuations of propagated shear waves. In this review, principles and technical developments of shear wave elastography for viscoelasticity characterization from organ to cellular levels are presented, and different imaging modalities used to track shear wave propagation are described. At a macroscopic scale, techniques for inducing shear waves using an external mechanical vibration, an acoustic radiation pressure or a Lorentz force are reviewed along with imaging approaches proposed to track shear wave propagation, namely ultrasound, magnetic resonance, optical, and photoacoustic means. Then, approaches for theoretical modeling and tracking of shear waves are detailed. Following it, some examples of applications to characterize the viscoelasticity of various organs are given. At a microscopic scale, a novel cellular shear wave elastography method using an external vibration and optical microscopy is illustrated. Finally, current limitations and future directions in shear wave elastography are presented.

scholarly journals Floral vibrations by buzz-pollinating bees achieve higher frequency, velocity and acceleration than flight and defence vibrations

2019 ◽  
Author(s):  
David J. Pritchard ◽  
Mario Vallejo-Marín
Keyword(s):  
Vibration Amplitude ◽  
Bombus Terrestris ◽  
Warning Signal ◽  
Biomechanical Properties ◽  
Pollen Foraging ◽  
Insect Behaviour ◽  
Pollen Collection ◽  
Pollen Removal ◽  
Foraging Decisions ◽  
Flight Muscles

AbstractVibrations play an important role in insect behaviour. In bees, vibrations are used in a variety of contexts including communication, as a warning signal to deter predators and during pollen foraging. However, little is known about how the biomechanical properties of bee vibrations vary across multiple behaviours within a species. In this study, we compared the properties of vibrations produced by Bombus terrestris audax (Hymenoptera: Apidae) workers in three contexts: during flight, during defensive buzzing, and in floral vibrations produced during pollen foraging on two buzz-pollinated plants (Solanum, Solanaceae). Using laser vibrometry, we were able to obtain contactless measures of both the frequency and amplitude of the thoracic vibrations of bees across the three behaviours. Despite all three types of vibrations being produced by the same power flight muscles, we found clear differences in the mechanical properties of the vibrations produced in different contexts. Both floral and defensive buzzes had higher frequency and amplitude velocity, acceleration, and displacement than the vibrations produced during flight. Floral vibrations had the highest frequency, amplitude velocity and acceleration of all the behaviours studied. Vibration amplitude, and in particular acceleration, of floral vibrations has been suggested as the key property for removing pollen from buzz-pollinated anthers. By increasing frequency and amplitude velocity and acceleration of their vibrations during vibratory pollen collection, foraging bees may be able to maximise pollen removal from flowers, although their foraging decisions are likely to be influenced by the presumably high cost of producing floral vibrations.

scholarly journals Bee and floral traits affect the characteristics of the vibrations experienced by flowers during buzz-pollination

2018 ◽  
Author(s):  
Blanca Arroyo-Correa ◽  
Ceit Elisabeth Beattie ◽  
Mario Vallejo-Marin
Keyword(s):  
Plant Species ◽  
Dry Weight ◽  
Coupling Factor ◽  
Buzz Pollination ◽  
Peak Displacement ◽  
Flight Muscles ◽  
Plant Characteristics ◽  
Pollen Release ◽  
Species Specific ◽  
Solanum Spp

During buzz pollination, bees use their indirect flight muscles to produce vibrations that are transmitted to the flowers and result in pollen release. Although buzz pollination has been known for >100 years, we are still in the early stages of understanding how bee and floral characteristics affect the production and transmission of floral vibrations. Here we analysed floral vibrations produced by four closely related bumblebee taxa (Bombus spp.) on two buzz-pollinated plants species (Solanum spp.). We measured floral vibrations transmitted to the flower to establish the extent to which the mechanical properties of floral vibrations depend on bee and plant characteristics. By comparing four bee taxa visiting the same plant species, we found that peak acceleration (PA), root mean-squared acceleration (RMS) and frequency varies between bee taxa, but that neither bee size (intertegular distance) or flower biomass (dry weight) affect PA, RMS or frequency. A comparison of floral vibrations of two bee taxa visiting flowers of two plant species, showed that, while bee species affects PA, RMS and frequency, plant species affects acceleration (PA and RMS) but not frequency. When accounting for differences in the transmission of vibrations across the two types of flowers, using a species-specific 'coupling factor', we found that RMS acceleration and peak displacement does not differ between plant species. This suggests that bees produce the same initial acceleration in different plants but that transmission of these vibrations through the flower is affected by floral characteristics.

scholarly journals Development of the indirect flight muscles of Drosophila

Development ◽  
1991 ◽  
Vol 113 (1) ◽  
pp. 67-77 ◽  
Author(s):  
J. Fernandes ◽  
M. Bate ◽  
K. Vijayraghavan
Keyword(s):  
Gene Expression ◽  
Drosophila Melanogaster ◽  
The Other ◽  
Specific Gene ◽  
Pupal Development ◽  
Specific Gene Expression ◽  
Morphological Criteria ◽  
Flight Muscles ◽  
Thoracic Muscles ◽  
Longitudinal Muscles

We have followed the pupal development of the indirect flight muscles (IFMs) of Drosophila melanogaster. At the onset of metamorphosis larval muscles start to histolyze, with the exception of a specific set of thoracic muscles. Myoblasts surround these persisting larval muscles and begin the formation of one group of adult indirect flight muscles, the dorsal longitudinal muscles. We show that the other group of indirect flight muscles, the dorsoventral muscles, develops simultaneously but without the use of larval templates. By morphological criteria and by patterns of specific gene expression, our experiments define events in IFM development.

The Utilization of Reserve Substances in Drosophila During Flight

1949 ◽  
Vol 26 (2) ◽  
pp. 150-163 ◽  
Author(s):  
V. B. WIGGLESWORTH
Keyword(s):  
Slow Rate ◽  
Fat Body ◽  
Sense Organ ◽  
Measured Quantity ◽  
Time Of Death ◽  
Fibre Bundles ◽  
Dense Deposits ◽  
Apparent Reduction ◽  
Flight Muscles ◽  
Thoracic Muscles

The chief reserve substance in Drosophila is glycogen. This forms dense deposits in the cells of the fat body and the haltere knobs. It is distributed throughout the indirect flight muscles as minute granules in the meshwork of sarcoplasm that fills the space between the fibrils and the sarcosomes. Somewhat larger masses lie along the surface of the fibre bundles and around their insertions. There is a large deposit in the proventriculus and small amounts in the cells of the mid-gut. The visible deposits of fat are much smaller and are confined to the fat body and the mid-gut cells. During starvation, glycogen and fat are consumed concurrently. At the time of death (2-3 days) glycogen has disappeared completely, save in the thoracic muscles; only minute droplets of fat remain in the fat body. In the insect which has flown to exhaustion (4-5 hr. in the mature fly) there is no apparent reduction in the stored fat. Glycogen is greatly reduced in all the deposits, but has disappeared completely only in the flight muscles and the proventriculus. ‘Exhaustion’ of the flying insect supervenes when the glycogen can no longer be mobilized rapidly enough to meet the metabolic demands of the flight muscles. Flight can be resumed for a brief period after the exhausted fly has rested; and the duration of flight increases with the duration of rest. By observing the duration of flight after giving a measured quantity of sugar to the exhausted insect it is shown that 1 µg. of glucose will maintain D. melanogaster in flight for an average of 6.3 min. The efficiency of substances as sources of energy for flight has been compared by giving them to the exhausted fly. Glucose will restore the capacity for continuous flight within 30-45 sec. of the commencement of feeding. Fructose, maltose, sucrose, etc., require a little longer. Galactose, xylose, etc., will allow repeated brief flights but will not support uninterrupted flight. Mannitol, glycerol, etc., merely increase the duration of flight after a standard period of rest. Lactose, sorbose, etc., have no effect. Glycine and alanine actually diminish the capacity for flight. It is suggested that the apparent failure of fats, etc., to support flight in Drosophila is due to the comparatively slow rate of their metabolism. It is suggested that the deposits of glycogen in the haltere knob may serve to increase the inertia of the haltere and so its efficiency as a gyroscopic sense organ.

PLoS Computational Biology Issue Image | Vol. 1(9) October 2021

2021 ◽  
Vol 1 (9) ◽  
pp. ev01.i09
Keyword(s):  
Open Access ◽  
Computational Biology ◽  
Buzz Pollination ◽  
Tomato Plants ◽  
Creative Commons ◽  
Link Type ◽  
Minas Gerais State ◽  
Audible Sound ◽  
Flight Muscles ◽  
Poricidal Anthers

The tomato flowers are characterized by possessing poricidal anthers, which restrict the exit of the pollen to a tiny opening on the apex of the anther. To extract pollen efficiently, some visiting bees grasp the anthers and quickly contracting their flight muscles, producing vibrations and an audible sound. The vibrations are transferred to the anthers, shaking and stimulating the pollen inside them to leave by the pores, a phenomenon known as floral sonication or buzz-pollination. DOI: pcbi.1009426 Image Credit: Priscila Souza AraFA;jo (co-author of the manuscript) photographed this bee visiting flowers of tomato plants grown at the experimental fields of the Federal University of ViE7;osa (Minas Gerais State, Brazil). We confirm that the image can publish under the Creative Commons Attribution License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). The authors own the copyright for the image and confirm that agree with open Access License of PLOS Computational Biology.

Piezoelectric Vibration Energy Harvester in Electric Vehicles

2013 ◽  
Vol 724-725 ◽  
pp. 1427-1430
Author(s):  
Shan Shan Li ◽  
Zheng Bin Wu ◽  
Yi Kun Su ◽  
Kui Xi
Keyword(s):  
Energy Use ◽  
Energy Harvester ◽  
Mechanical Vibration ◽  
Vibration Energy ◽  
Electric Signal ◽  
Element Analysis ◽  
Vibration Energy Harvester ◽  
Piezoelectric Energy ◽  
Piezoelectric Vibration Energy Harvester ◽  
Piezoelectric Vibration

This paper reports the establishment of a piezoelectric vibration energy harvester for electric vehicle (EV) applications. Finite element analysis results, which agree experimental outcome well, have demonstrated that the piezoelectric vibrator can produce 1 V DC electric signal under 2 mm amplitude mechanical vibration at lower frequency. The energy harvester comprising two piezoelectric vibrators connected in series charged a Ni-MH secondary battery from 1.17 V to 1.24 V. It is verified that this piezoelectric energy harvester can be used in EVs and will potentially improve the energy use efficiency and performance of EVs.

scholarly journals Flapping at Resonance: Measuring the Frequency Response of the Hymenoptera Thorax

2019 ◽  
Author(s):  
Mark A. Jankauski
Keyword(s):  
Frequency Response ◽  
Fundamental Frequency ◽  
Duffing Oscillator ◽  
Mechanical Vibration ◽  
Micro Air Vehicles ◽  
Wingbeat Frequency ◽  
Fundamental Frequencies ◽  
Flight Muscles ◽  
Force Displacement ◽  
Vibration Shaker

AbstractInsects with asynchronous flight muscles are believed to flap at the fundamental frequency of their thorax or thorax-wing system. Flapping in this manner leverages the natural elasticity of the thorax to reduce the energetic requirements of flight. However, to the best of our knowledge, the fundamental frequency of the insect thorax has not been measured via vibration testing. Here, we measure the linear frequency response function (FRF) of several Hymenoptera (Apis mellifera, Polistes dominula, Bombus huntii) thoraxes about their equilibrium states in order to determine their fundamental frequencies. FRFs relate the input force to output acceleration at the insect tergum and are acquired via a mechanical vibration shaker assembly. When compressed 50 μm, thorax fundamental frequencies in all specimens approximately 50-150% higher than reported wingbeat frequencies. We suspect that the measured fundamental frequencies are higher in the experiment than during flight due to experimental boundary conditions that stiffen the thorax. Thus, our results corroborate the idea that some insects flap at the fundamental frequency of their thorax. Next, we compress the thorax between 100 - 300 μm in 50 μm intervals to assess the sensitivity of the fundamental frequency to geometric modifications. For all insects considered, the thorax fundamental frequency increased nearly monotonically with respect to level of compression. This implies that the thorax behaves a nonlinear hardening spring, which we confirmed via static force-displacement testing. Hardening behavior may provide a simple mechanism for the insect to adjust wingbeat frequency, and implies the thorax may behave as a nonlinear Duffing oscillator excited at large amplitude. The Duffing oscillator exhibits amplitude-dependent resonance and may serve as a useful model to increase the flapping frequency bandwidth of small resonant-type flapping wing micro air vehicles.

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