The Darwinian Outlook
The contemporary view of evolution crystallized in the mid-20th century in a hard-edged form that puts genes central: It sees organisms as vehicles for their genes, the material basis of the instructions encoded therein. Heredity, variation, natural selection, and adaptation all result from events that take place at the gene level. Organisms evolve by small mutational steps, never by sudden jumps. Mutations occur at random, not in response to need. Acquired characteristics are never inherited. Ongoing research challenges all these premises, and reinforces the criticism that the received doctrine is too narrow. Two important sources of novelty are lateral gene transfer across all boundaries, and the creation of new patterns of order by symbiosis. (The origin and history of the eukaryotic cell is a prime example.) In the renovated synthesis now emerging, genes retain their hold on organismal identity that is passed from parents to offspring and not easily altered. But this genetic framework is supplemented by a variety of more cellular mechanisms to acquire new traits, making cells more flexible and cohesive than imagined in classical theory.