Macrofilaricidal Activity, Acute and Biochemical Effects of Three Lichen Species Found on Mount Cameroon

Onchocerciasis is a parasitic infection affecting a relatively small population globally but has very devastating pathological outcomes. Ivermectin and recently moxidectin are the only drugs approved for clinical management of the disease, both of which have several limitations. In particular, they are efficacious against microfilariae (microfilaricidal) with no activity against adult worms (nonmacrofilaricidal). Promising anthelmintic activity has been reported in some lichens. This study investigated three lichens, Usnea articulata, Parmotrema tinctorum, and Heterodermia obscurata, found on Mount Cameroon, for potential macrofilaricidal activity. Organic extracts were screened for anti-Onchocerca activity against Onchocerca ochengi isolated from cattle skin using worm motility and MTT formazan assays. Toxicity of highly active extracts was investigated on monkey kidney epithelial (LLCMK2) cells and in BALB/c mice (2000 mg/kg body weight) including effects on liver enzymes. The methanol extract of P. tinctorum (Pammet) was the most active against adult male worms ( I C 50 = 8.1 μg/mL) with the highest selectivity index ( SI = 21.3 ). U. articulata was the most active against the adult female ( I C 50 = 36.3 μg/mL) but had a low SI value (3.4). No mortality and no adverse effects were recorded in the acute toxicity test. These two most active extracts had no significant effect on liver enzymes, alanine aminotransferase, and aspartate ( P values < 0.05), but a high AST : ALT ratio (2.59) for Pammet indicates likely reversible adverse hepatic toxicity. The high macrofilaricidal activity and selectivity of P. tinctorum suggest it is a potential source of new macrofilaricides which should be further investigated to identify its bioactive constituents.

Antitrypanosomal Effect of Hydromethanolic Extract of Solanum anguivi Lam on Field Isolates of Trypanosoma congolense Infected Mice

Introduction. Trypanosomiasis is one of the world’s most serious infectious diseases caused by Trypanosoma parasites. Concern about resistance to conventional antitrypanosomal drugs, mosquito vector resistance to existing insecticide side effects of existing antitrypanosomal drugs justifies the urgent need for more effective, tolerable, and affordable drugs. Objective. The present study is aimed at determining the in vivo antitrypanosomal effect of the hydromethanolic extracts of Solanum anguivi fruit extracts against the field isolates of T. congolense. Methods. The 80% methanol extracts of S. anguivi fruits were prepared by cold maceration technique. In vivo curative tests were done to check the effect of plant extract against T. congolense in Swiss albino mice. Plant extracts were administered at doses of 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg/body weight. Acute toxicity of the extracts at 2000 mg/kg was performed according to OECD guidelines. Data obtained from the experiment were analyzed using one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey test. Results. This study indicated that extract did not exhibit any sign of acute toxicity up to 2000 mg/kg/body weight. In curative test, extracts reduced parasitemia, preventing the drop in packed cell volume and body weight significantly ( p < 0.05 ), compared to control. Groups provided with the extract before infection got prolonged incubation period with chemoprophylactic effect at the doses of 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg. Phytochemical analysis showed presence of flavonoids, steroids, triterpens, saponins, glycosides, tannins, and alkaloids. Conclusion. The extract showed promising curative. Further effort is required to isolate and purify specific compounds responsible for antitrypanosomal activity of studied plant.

Neospora caninum Infection in Cattle in the Province of Kohgiluyeh and Boyer Ahmad, Southwest of Iran: Seroprevalence and Molecular Assessment

Introduction. Among the protozoa of veterinary importance, Neospora caninum is responsible for large economic and productive losses in cattle herds. Dogs are being considered the definitive hosts of the parasite. Neospora caninum has gained considerable attention through its role in the etiology of bovine abortion. The current study aimed at assessing the status of Neospora infection in cattle in Boyer-Ahmad County in Kohgiluyeh and Boyer-Ahmad province, southwest of Iran. Methods. In this cross-sectional study, 150 cattle blood samples were collected and samples were screened for N. caninum antibodies using a modified direct agglutination test (MAT). For the same samples, 130 buffy coats were collected and tested, by PCR, for the presence of N. caninum DNA, targeting the Nc-5 gene. Results. Anti-N. caninum antibodies were detected in the sera of 49 out of 150 cattle which is corresponding to a seroprevalence rate of 32.7%. Neospora DNA was detected in buffy coats of 26 out of 127 (20.47%) cattle. Even though Neospora infection was more common in females and in five-year-old cattle by serology and molecular methods, yet there was no statistically significant difference between age, sex, and Neospora infection in both molecular and serological methods ( p > 0.05 ). Conclusion. Findings of the current study indicate a high rate of N. caninum infection in cattle of Boyer-Ahmad region in the southwest of Iran. This issue should be further investigated and the prevention and control of this parasite in livestock, due to the high financial burden of this parasite in the livestock industry, should be considered.

Knowledge, Attitude, and Practice towards Malaria among People Attending Mekaneeyesus Primary Hospital, South Gondar, Northwestern Ethiopia: A Cross-Sectional Study

Background. Malaria is one of the most severe public health problems worldwide. It is a leading cause of suffering, death, and socioeconomic problem, especially in many developing countries like Ethiopia. To introduce appropriate preventive and control measures, assessment of community’s levels of knowledge, attitude, and preventative practices regarding malaria is crucial. This study was aimed at assessing the knowledge, attitude, and practice (KAP) towards malaria and its preventive and control methods among people attending Mekaneeyesus primary hospital, South Gondar, northwestern Ethiopia. Methods. A hospital-based cross-sectional study was conducted from September 2017 to April 2018. A structured questionnaire was administered to collect data on sociodemographic characteristics and KAP of 390 randomly selected individuals. The data collecting tool was pretested before commencing the actual data collection. The data were analyzed using the SPSS version 21 software. P values less than 0.05 were considered statistically significant. Results. The overall prevalence rate of malaria in the study area was 8.5%. Nearly two-third of the participants had good knowledge (63.1%) and positive attitude (62.6%) scores towards malaria while only half of the participants had (50.8%) good practice score towards malaria prevention and control measures. Sex, age category, family monthly income, residence, and occupational and educational status of the participants were significantly associated with knowledge and practice scores ( P < 0.05 ). The odds of malaria were 26.93 ( CI = 3.67 ‐ 197.47 , P = 0.001 ) and 13.09 ( CI = 0.93 ‐ 183.47 , P = 0.036 ) times higher among individuals who had poor knowledge and poor practice towards malaria, respectively, as compared to individuals who were knowledgeable and had good practice score towards malaria. Conclusion. The overall knowledge score, attitude, and practice level of respondents towards malaria was relatively good. However, significant proportion of the participants still have misconception about the cause, sign and symptoms, modes of transmission, and practices towards prevention methods of malaria. Thus, health education which is aimed at raising community’s awareness about the disease is necessary to address the gaps identified by this study.

Serosurvey and Molecular Detection of Toxoplasma gondii in Dogs in Rural Areas of Kazeroun District, Fars Province, Southern Iran

Background. Toxoplasma gondii is an intracellular protozoan parasite responsible for systemic disease in a wide range of warm-blooded animals. The current study is aimed at evaluating the prevalence of Toxoplasma infection in dogs, using serological and molecular methods in rural areas in Kazeroun Township, Fars province, southern Iran. Methods. Blood samples were obtained from 60 clinically healthy dogs with an age range of 1 to 7 years in three rural areas of Fars province, southern Iran. Sera and buffy coats were used to assess the T. gondii infection using both modified agglutination test (MAT) and real-time PCR. Results. Antibodies against T. gondii were detected in 5 out of 60 (8.3%) dogs by the MAT method, and T. gondii DNA was detected in 17 out of 60 (28.3%) studied animals. There was no significant association between sex and seropositivity to Toxoplasma ( p > 0.05 ). Fair agreement ( kappa = 0.27 ) was seen between molecular and serological findings where three dogs with positive serological results had a positive molecular test. Conclusion. Findings of the present study show a relatively high prevalence of T. gondii infection in dogs in rural areas in Fars province, southern Iran. Finding the parasite genotype in dogs deserves further study.

Study on Prevalence of Trypanosomosis in Cattle of Sodo Zuriya District, Wolaita Zone, Southern Ethiopia

Background. Trypanosomosis is a significant impediment to Ethiopia’s livestock and farm production, adding adversely to the overall growth of agriculture in general and the nation’s food self-reliance efforts in particular. Methods. Cross-sectional research was performed on the prevalence of trypanosomosis in cattle and the distinction of Trypanosoma species and potential factors in six selected provinces of the Sodo zuriya district in southern Ethiopia. Blood samples from the ear vein of 400 local and exotic cattle species were taken randomly. A hematocrit reader was used after centrifugation at 12,000 rpm for a five-minute assessment of anemic conditions of animals, and the anemia of the thin blood spraying and buffy coat procedure was tested to assess the incidence, detection, and packaging of Trypanosoma and the cell volume of each sampled animal. Results. Accordingly, twenty cattle were positive for trypanosomosis, with an overall proportion of 5.0%. From this overall prevalence, Trypanosoma congolense (3.3%) and Trypanosoma vivax (1.8%) were the two common Trypanosoma species in this study. The highest and the lowest prevalence of trypanosomes occurred in Guttuto Larena (35%) and Dalbo Wogane (0.00%), respectively. Age-wise prevalence revealed that young adults (45%) were the most affected, followed by old adults (35%) and adults (20%). Cattle with poor body condition scores (65%) were the most affected, followed by cattle with medium (30%) and good (5%) body condition scores, and this was found to be statistically significant ( p ≤ 0.002 ). In addition, the variation in packed cell volume (PCV) between infected and noninfected cattle was significantly different ( p ≤ 0.0001 ). Conclusion. Thus, the present study revealed the predominance of bovine trypanosomosis in the region and had a significant effect on body condition and anemia growth. The government and public should then collaborate in parasite-observed areas on the disease’s management and prevention efforts in an environmentally sustainable way.

Prevalence and Risk Factors of Bovine and Ovine Lungworm Infection at Durame District, Southern Ethiopia

Background. Lungworms are parasitic nematodes of the order Strongylidae that infect the lungs of cattle and sheep and cause bronchitis or pneumonia. Methods. An abattoir-based cross-sectional study was conducted from November 2018 to April 2019 to determine the comparative prevalence and the possible risk factors of lungworm infection in sheep and cattle of Durame district of Kembata Tembaro zone. For this purpose, a total of 410 animals (209 sheep and 201 cattle) were randomly selected and examined for the presence of different lungworm species using the modified Baermann technique and postmortem examination. The sensitivity and specificity of fecal sample test considering necropsy as reference/gold standard was conducted. Results. Accordingly, the overall prevalence of lungworm infection in sheep and cattle was 24.39%. Dictyocaulus filaria and D. viviparous were the only species of lungworm identified in sheep and cattle with a respective prevalence of 44.02% and 3.98%. Putative risk factors such as species and poor body condition have a significant association ( p < 0.05 ) with the occurrence of lungworms in sheep and cattle. The lungworm infection was higher in the young age group (25.30%) and poor body conditioned (32.14%) animals. Season-wise prevalence revealed that a higher lungworm infection was recorded during autumn (32.14%) as compared to winter (22.81%) and spring (16.2%). Most of the sheep and cattle in the current study were heavily (45.0%) and moderately (39.0%) infected with lungworms whereas the rest 16.0% were infected with a low degree of lungworm infection. The specificity, sensitivity, PPV, and NPV of the modified Baermann technique against the gold standard test were 89.4%, 42%, 56.0%, and 82.7%, respectively. Conclusion. The study revealed that lungworm infection is prevalent in sheep and cattle of the study area and that was commonly occurs during autumn and affects poorly conditioned sheep and cattle. Thus, routine and strategic deworming for the control and prevention of lungworms in domestic animals should be recommended to overwhelm the prevalence of lungworm infection.

Prevalence of Intestinal Protozoan Parasites and Associated Risk Factors among School Children in Merhabete District, Central Ethiopia

Background. Intestinal protozoan parasitic infections remain one of the major public health problems in tropical regions especially, among developing countries such as Ethiopia. However, no enough epidemiological data is available in this respect in many parts of the country. Hence, this study was aimed at assessing the prevalence of intestinal protozoan parasitic infections and their associated risk factors among school children in Zeita village, Merhabete District, North Shewa Zone, Central Ethiopia. Methods. A cross-sectional parasitological survey was conducted from January to March 2020. A total of 280 children from Zeita primary school were selected using stratified random sampling techniques. Stool samples were collected and examined using direct wet mount, Formal-Ether concentration and Modified Zeihel-Neelsen staining techniques. Results. The overall prevalence of intestinal protozoan parasitic infection was found to be 46.8% (131/280). The three predominant protozoan parasites detected in this study were Entamoeba histolytica, Giardia lamblia, and Cryptosporidium parvum which were observed in 70 (25.2%), 54 (19.3%), and 7 (2.5%) of the study participants, respectively. Sociodemographic characteristics of the study subjects such as family occupation ( P = 0.028 ), sources of drinking water ( P = 0.001 ), water handling practice ( P = 0.027 ), habit of eating vegetable ( P = 0.001 ), and presence of latrine were observed to be significantly associated risk factors for the occurrence of human intestinal protozoan parasites. Conclusion. A high prevalence of intestinal protozoan parasitic infection which has been contributed by different risk factors was revealed in this study. The findings suggested a need of collaborative effort among the educational and health authorities to control the infection in the study area.

The Activity of Plant Crude Extracts against Schistosoma mansoni

Background. Schistosoma mansoni remains a significant health problem in low-income countries. Praziquantel (PZQ) is the only drug available to treat schistosomiasis, and PZQ resistance is a potential threat towards control of the disease although PZQ is currently effective against all species of schistosomes. Moreover, PZQ is less efficacious against larval stages. In response to these challenges, multiple in vivo/in vitro studies evaluated the anti-S. mansoni activity of crude plant extracts in a bid for novel drug(s). However, these studies appear fragmented and patchy. This systematic review explored the extent of such studies in the past 11 years (2010-2020). Methods. A systematic web search analysis and review of the literature on crude plant extracts tested against S. mansoni was done. Data from 17 articles meeting eligibility criteria were extracted and analyzed. Forty-three plant species have been tested by the 17 studies. The leaves, barks, stems, flowers, rhizomes, and roots of the plants as well as the whole plant part were used for the experiments. Conclusion. Nearly all of the plants significantly reduced schistosome egg output, killed adult worms, and improved liver histology and function. Further studies are required to assess the therapeutic potential of more promising plant species.

Detection of Acute and Chronic Toxoplasma gondii Infection among Women with History of Abortion in the Southwest of Iran

Background. Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) is one of the most common intracellular protozoan parasites, which can infect humans and a wide range of mammals and birds. The current study is aimed at investigating the occurrence of T. gondii infection in women with a history of abortion in Khuzestan, Iran. Materials and Methods. A total of 480 women with an abortion history, as well as 200 pregnant women with a normal delivery, were examined in this study. The blood, placenta, and umbilical cord blood samples were assessed by the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and nested-polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay. Results. Based on the results of ELISA assay, the prevalence of toxoplasmosis was 30.83% in women with a history of abortion (25.62% with T. gondii IgG and 5.20% with T. gondii IgM). According to the IgG avidity test, 60.16% of IgG-positive samples showed high avidity, while 27.64% showed low avidity. On the other hand, the prevalence of toxoplasmosis in women with a normal delivery was 23% (21.5% with T. gondii IgG and 1.5% with T. gondii IgM). According to the IgG avidity test, 81.39% of these women showed high avidity, while only 4.65% showed low avidity. Based on the nested-PCR method, T. gondii DNA was detected in 14.18% of blood samples, 4.69% of placental samples, and 1.34% of umbilical cord samples, collected from 148 seropositive women with a history of abortion. Besides, using this method, the parasite DNA was identified in 4.34% of blood samples, collected from 46 seropositive women with a normal delivery, but not in any of the umbilical cord or placenta samples. Conclusion. The present results showed that T. gondii infection contributes to abortion in Khuzestan Province, Iran. Therefore, it is essential to investigate toxoplasmosis in pregnant women, especially in those who are seronegative, using molecular and serological methods and inform them about their disease and the associated risks.