Which Muscles Power the Human Running Stride?

2012 ◽  
Author(s):  
Tim W. Dorn ◽  
Yi-Chung Lin ◽  
Anthony G. Schache ◽  
Marcus G. Pandy
Keyword(s):  
Muscle Power ◽  
Center Of Mass ◽  
The Body ◽  
Metabolic Energy ◽  
Running Speed ◽  
Limb Coordination ◽  
External Power ◽  
Muscle Groups ◽  
The Individual ◽  
Human Running

Running is a physically demanding activity that requires explosive delivery of muscle power to the ground during stance, and precise, yet rapid limb coordination during swing. In particular, as running speed increases, greater metabolic energy in the form of muscle mechanical work is required to power the motion of: i) the center-of-mass (i.e., external power); and ii) the individual limb segments (i.e., internal power) [1,2]. The purpose of this study was to quantify the contributions that individual muscles make to the external and internal power of the body across a range of running speeds so as to identify the key muscle groups in coordinating a full running stride.

scholarly journals Elastic energy savings and active energy cost in a simple model of running

2021 ◽  
Vol 17 (11) ◽  
pp. e1009608
Author(s):  
Ryan T. Schroeder ◽  
Arthur D. Kuo
Keyword(s):  
Elastic Energy ◽  
Energy Cost ◽  
Energy Savings ◽  
Mechanical Energy ◽  
Metabolic Cost ◽  
The Body ◽  
Metabolic Energy ◽  
Energetic Cost ◽  
Mass Model ◽  
Human Running

The energetic economy of running benefits from tendon and other tissues that store and return elastic energy, thus saving muscles from costly mechanical work. The classic “Spring-mass” computational model successfully explains the forces, displacements and mechanical power of running, as the outcome of dynamical interactions between the body center of mass and a purely elastic spring for the leg. However, the Spring-mass model does not include active muscles and cannot explain the metabolic energy cost of running, whether on level ground or on a slope. Here we add explicit actuation and dissipation to the Spring-mass model, and show how they explain substantial active (and thus costly) work during human running, and much of the associated energetic cost. Dissipation is modeled as modest energy losses (5% of total mechanical energy for running at 3 m s-1) from hysteresis and foot-ground collisions, that must be restored by active work each step. Even with substantial elastic energy return (59% of positive work, comparable to empirical observations), the active work could account for most of the metabolic cost of human running (about 68%, assuming human-like muscle efficiency). We also introduce a previously unappreciated energetic cost for rapid production of force, that helps explain the relatively smooth ground reaction forces of running, and why muscles might also actively perform negative work. With both work and rapid force costs, the model reproduces the energetics of human running at a range of speeds on level ground and on slopes. Although elastic return is key to energy savings, there are still losses that require restorative muscle work, which can cost substantial energy during running.

Maximum speed and mechanical power output in lizards.

1997 ◽  
Vol 200 (16) ◽  
pp. 2189-2195 ◽  
Author(s):  
C T Farley
Keyword(s):  
Body Mass ◽  
Power Output ◽  
Center Of Mass ◽  
The Body ◽  
Mechanical Power ◽  
Stride Frequency ◽  
Maximum Speed ◽  
Muscular System ◽  
Running Speed ◽  
Mechanical Power Output

The goal of the present study was to test the hypothesis that maximum running speed is limited by how much mechanical power the muscular system can produce. To test this hypothesis, two species of lizards, Coleonyx variegatus and Eumeces skiltonianus, sprinted on hills of different slopes. According to the hypothesis, maximum speed should decrease on steeper uphill slopes but mechanical power output at maximum speed should be independent of slope. For level sprinting, the external mechanical power output was determined from force platform data. For uphill sprinting, the mechanical power output was approximated as the power required to lift the center of mass vertically. When the slope increased from level to 40 degrees uphill, maximum speed decreased by 28% in C. variegatus and by 16% in E. skiltonianus. At maximum speed on a 40 degrees uphill slope in both species, the mechanical power required to lift the body vertically was approximately 3.9 times greater than the external mechanical power output at maximum speed on the level. Because total limb mass is small in both species (6-16% of body mass) and stride frequency is similar at maximum speed on all slopes, the internal mechanical power output is likely to be small and similar in magnitude on all slopes. I conclude that the muscular system is capable of producing substantially more power during locomotion than it actually produces during level sprinting. Thus, the capacity of the muscular system to produce power does not limit maximum running speed.

scholarly journals Running backwards: soft landing–hard takeoff, a less efficient rebound

2010 ◽  
Vol 278 (1704) ◽  
pp. 339-346 ◽  
Author(s):  
G. A. Cavagna ◽  
M. A. Legramandi ◽  
A. La Torre
Keyword(s):  
Basic Property ◽  
Mechanical Energy ◽  
The Body ◽  
Metabolic Energy ◽  
Soft Landing ◽  
Average Force ◽  
Basic Force ◽  
Velocity Relation ◽  
Force Velocity ◽  
Human Running

Human running at low and intermediate speeds is characterized by a greater average force exerted after ‘landing’, when muscle–tendon units are stretched (‘hard landing’), and a lower average force exerted before ‘takeoff’, when muscle–tendon units shorten (‘soft takeoff’). This landing–takeoff asymmetry is consistent with the force–velocity relation of the ‘motor’ (i.e. with the basic property of muscle to resist stretching with a force greater than that developed during shortening), but it may also be due to the ‘machine’ (e.g. to the asymmetric lever system of the foot operating during stance). Hard landing and soft takeoff—never the reverse—were found in running, hopping and trotting animals using diverse lever systems, suggesting that the different machines evolved to comply with the basic force–velocity relation of the motor. Here we measure the mechanical energy of the centre of mass of the body in backward running, an exercise where the normal coupling between motor and machine is voluntarily disrupted, in order to see the relevance of the motor–machine interplay in human running. We find that the landing–takeoff asymmetry is reversed. The resulting ‘soft landing’ and ‘hard takeoff’ are associated with a reduced efficiency of positive work production. We conclude that the landing–takeoff asymmetry found in running, hopping and trotting is the expression of a convenient interplay between motor and machine. More metabolic energy must be spent in the opposite case when muscle is forced to work against its basic property (i.e. when it must exert a greater force during shortening and a lower force during stretching).

Developmental biodynamics: the development of coordination in children

2013 ◽  
Author(s):  
James Watkins
Keyword(s):  
External Environment ◽  
Human Movement ◽  
The Body ◽  
Physical Contact ◽  
Developmental Biomechanics ◽  
Internal Forces ◽  
Muscle Groups ◽  
The Individual ◽  
External Forces ◽  
The Relationship

Human movement is brought about by the musculoskeletal system under the control of the nervous system. By coordinated activity between the various muscle groups, forces generated by the muscles are transmitted by the bones and joints to enable the individual to maintain an upright or partially upright posture and bring about voluntary controlled movements. Biomechanics of human movement is the study of the relationship between the external forces (due to body weight and physical contact with the external environment) and internal forces (active forces generated by muscles and passive forces exerted on other structures) that act on the body and the eff ect of these forces on the movement of the body. This chapter specifically addresses developmental biomechanics as it relates to the development of coordination in children.

scholarly journals EFFECT OF NEURAC THERAPY ON PLANTAR PRESSURES DISTRIBUTION AND THE CENTER OF GRAVITY OF THE HUMAN BODY

2021 ◽  
Vol 7 (4) ◽  
pp. 121-124
Author(s):  
Monika Michalíková ◽  
Lucia Bednarčíková ◽  
Bibiána Ondrejová ◽  
Miroslava Barcalová ◽  
Jozef Živčák
Keyword(s):  
Movement Therapy ◽  
Center Of Gravity ◽  
The Body ◽  
Body Posture ◽  
Plantar Pressures ◽  
Specific Muscle ◽  
Muscle Groups ◽  
The Individual ◽  
Pelvic Position ◽  
And Control

Nowadays, the pathophysiological posture is a problem for a large part of the population, which leads to a deterioration in the quality of life as a result of functional disorders of the human musculoskeletal system. The aim of the presented article is to point out the effectiveness of movement therapy for the correction of the pelvic position and subsequent adjustment of the body posture, which is evaluated by a change in the distribution of plantar pressures as well as the position of the center of gravity projection. Observations were made on three subjects who reported pain in different areas of the body as a result of incorrect body posture. Input and control measurements were performed on a baropodometer, and Neurac movement therapy in the Redcord system was applied between the individual measurements. The individual exercises were chosen specifically with regard to affect the specific muscle groups. After evaluating the measured data, it can be stated that the selected movement therapy has a significant effect on the correction of pathophysiological position, which is also demonstrated by changing the distribution of plantar pressures, adjusting the position of the center of gravity projection and also significantly eliminating painful symptoms and increasing movement comfort.

Behavioral Control

1993 ◽  
Author(s):  
Norman I. Badler ◽  
Cary B. Phillips ◽  
Bonnie Lynn Webber
Keyword(s):  
Behavioral Control ◽  
Center Of Mass ◽  
The Body ◽  
Upper Body ◽  
Natural State ◽  
Articulated Figures ◽  
Computational Environment ◽  
Simple Set ◽  
Human Figure ◽  
The Individual

The behaviors constitute a powerful vocabulary for postural control. The manipulation commands provide the stimuli; the behaviors determine the response. The rationale for using behavioral animation is its economy of description: a simple input from the user can generate very complex and realistic motion. By defining a simple set of rules for how objects behave, the user can control the objects through a much more intuitive and efficient language because much of the motion is generated automatically. Several systems have used the notion of behaviors to describe and generate motion [Zel91]. The most prominent of this work is by Craig Reynolds, who used the notion of behavior models to generate animations of flocks of birds and schools of fish [Rey87]. The individual birds and fish operate using a simple set of rules which tell them how to react to the movement of the neighboring animals and the features of the environment. Some global parameters also guide the movement of the entire flock. William Reeves used the same basic idea but applied it very small inanimate objects, and he dubbed the result particle systems [Ree83]. Behaviors have also been applied to articulated figures. McKenna and Zeltzer [MPZ90] describe a computational environment for simulating virtual actors, principally designed to simulate an insect (a cockroach in particular) for animation purposes. Most of the action of the roach is in walking, and a gait controller generates the walking motion. Reflexes can modify the basic gait patterns. The stepping reflex triggers a leg to step if its upper body rotates beyond a certain angle. The load bearing reflex inhibits stepping if the leg is supporting the body. The over-reach reflex triggers a leg to move if it becomes over-extended. The system uses inverse kinematics to position the legs. Jack controls bipedal locomotion in a similar fashion (Section 5), but for now we focus on simpler though dramatically important postural behaviors. The human figure in its natural state has constraints on its toes, heels, knees, pelvis, center of mass, hands, elbows, head and eyes. They correspond loosely to the columns of the staff in Labanotation, which designate the different parts of the body.

scholarly journals Magnitude of physiological curvatures of the spine and the incidence of contractures of selected muscle groups in students

2018 ◽  
Vol 10 (1) ◽  
pp. 31-37
Author(s):  
Elżbieta Olszewska ◽  
Piotr Tabor ◽  
Renata Czarniecka
Keyword(s):  
Hip Joint ◽  
Pearson Correlation ◽  
Correlation Coefficients ◽  
Shoulder Girdle ◽  
The Body ◽  
Body Posture ◽  
Inclination Angles ◽  
Shoulder Complex ◽  
Muscle Groups ◽  
The Individual

Summary Study aim: The aim of this study was to evaluate the incidence of contractures of selected muscle groups with respect to the magnitude of the physiological curvatures of the spine in young men with above-average levels of physical activity.Material and methods: The study included 96 students at the University of Physical Education in Warsaw aged between 20 and 22 years (21.2 ± 1.05). Ninety-five percent of the students participated in sports training activities. The study was conducted between January and February 2016. The selected traits of the body posture were evaluated with an inclinometer, which was used to measure the inclination angles of sections of the spine relative to the vertical. The ranges of motion in the shoulder complex and the pelvic complex were measured with a goniometer. Values of 175º (for the shoulder complex) and 174° (for the hip joint) were assumed to indicate a decreased range of motion.Results: The analysis of the individual results concerning mobility disorders in the shoulder complex and the pelvic complex revealed significant abnormalities in the researched group of students. About 90% of the study participants showed contrac­tures of selected muscle groups within the shoulder girdle, primarily in the right upper limb. Similar results were obtained for the incidence of contractures in the flexors of the hip joint. Flexion contractures in the hip joint were observed in around 84% of the participants, primarily in the left lower limb. The correlations between the inclination angles of the sections of the spine relative to the vertical and the ranges of motion in the shoulder complex and the pelvic complex, established using Pearson correlation coefficients, were ambiguous. The angles γ, β1 and α were inversely proportional to the range of raising motions of the upper limbs through flexion, where the correlation coefficients of all angles were statistically significant. Similar tendencies were observed for the correlations between the angles β2, β1 and α and the range of the extension movements at the hip joint, although the correlation coefficients were statistically significant only in the case of the angle β1.Conclusions: Ranges of movement in the shoulder complex and pelvic complex have an influence on magnitude of physiologi­cal curvatures of the spine and the functioning of body posture.

scholarly journals Rules of nature’s Formula Run: Muscle mechanics during late stance is the key to explaining maximum running speed

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Michael Günther ◽  
Robert Rockenfeller ◽  
Tom Weihmann ◽  
Daniel F. B. Haeufle ◽  
Thomas Götz ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Body Mass ◽  
Ground Reaction Force ◽  
Reaction Force ◽  
Biomechanical Model ◽  
The Body ◽  
Metabolic Energy ◽  
Recent Analysis ◽  
Maximum Speed ◽  
Muscle Fibres ◽  
Running Speed

AbstractThe maximum running speed of legged animals is one evident factor for evolutionary selection—for predators and prey. Therefore, it has been studied across the entire size range of animals, from the smallest mites to the largest elephants, and even beyond to extinct dinosaurs. A recent analysis of the relation between animal mass (size) and maximum running speed showed that there seems to be an optimal range of body masses in which the highest terrestrial running speeds occur. However, the conclusion drawn from that analysis—namely, that maximum speed is limited by the fatigue of white muscle fibres in the acceleration of the body mass to some theoretically possible maximum speed—was based on coarse reasoning on metabolic grounds, which neglected important biomechanical factors and basic muscle-metabolic parameters. Here, we propose a generic biomechanical model to investigate the allometry of the maximum speed of legged running. The model incorporates biomechanically important concepts: the ground reaction force being counteracted by air drag, the leg with its gearing of both a muscle into a leg length change and the muscle into the ground reaction force, as well as the maximum muscle contraction velocity, which includes muscle-tendon dynamics, and the muscle inertia—with all of them scaling with body mass. Put together, these concepts’ characteristics and their interactions provide a mechanistic explanation for the allometry of maximum legged running speed. This accompanies the offering of an explanation for the empirically found, overall maximum in speed: In animals bigger than a cheetah or pronghorn, the time that any leg-extending muscle needs to settle, starting from being isometric at about midstance, at the concentric contraction speed required for running at highest speeds becomes too long to be attainable within the time period of a leg moving from midstance to lift-off. Based on our biomechanical model we, thus, suggest considering the overall speed maximum to indicate muscle inertia being functionally significant in animal locomotion. Furthermore, the model renders possible insights into biological design principles such as differences in the leg concept between cats and spiders, and the relevance of multi-leg (mammals: four, insects: six, spiders: eight) body designs and emerging gaits. Moreover, we expose a completely new consideration regarding the muscles’ metabolic energy consumption, both during acceleration to maximum speed and in steady-state locomotion.

scholarly journals Elastic energy savings and active energy cost in a simple model of running

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Ryan T. Schroeder ◽  
Arthur D. Kuo
Keyword(s):  
Elastic Energy ◽  
Energy Cost ◽  
Energy Savings ◽  
Mechanical Energy ◽  
Center Of Mass ◽  
Metabolic Cost ◽  
The Body ◽  
Metabolic Energy ◽  
Energetic Cost ◽  
Mass Model

The energetic economy of running benefits from tendon and other tissues that store and return elastic energy, thus saving muscles from costly mechanical work. The classic Spring-mass computational model successfully explains the forces, displacements and mechanical power of running, as the outcome of dynamical interactions between the body center of mass and a purely elastic spring for the leg. Conversely, the Spring-mass model does not include active muscles and cannot explain the metabolic energy cost of running. Here we add explicit actuation and dissipation to the Spring-mass model, resulting in substantial active (and thus costly) work for running on level ground and up or down slopes. Dissipation is modeled as modest energy losses (5% of total mechanical energy for running at 3 m/s) from hysteresis and foot-ground collisions, that must be restored by active work each step. Even with substantial elastic energy return (59% of positive work, comparable to empirical observations), the active work could account for most of the metabolic cost of human running (about 68%, assuming human-like muscle efficiency). We also introduce a previously unappreciated energetic cost for rapid production of force, that helps explain the relatively smooth ground reaction forces of running, and why muscles might also actively perform negative work. Although elastic return is key to energy savings, there are still losses that require restorative muscle work, which can cost substantial energy during running.

Influence of stable iodine on the uptake of the thyroid – model vs. experiment

2001 ◽  
Vol 40 (01) ◽  
pp. 31-37 ◽  
Author(s):  
U. Wellner ◽  
E. Voth ◽  
H. Schicha ◽  
K. Weber
Keyword(s):  
Time Course ◽  
Compartment Model ◽  
The Body ◽  
Iodine Uptake ◽  
Model Calculations ◽  
Physiological Conditions ◽  
Iodine Supply ◽  
Predicted Values ◽  
The Individual ◽  
Stable Iodine

Summary Aim: The influence of physiological and pharmacological amounts of iodine on the uptake of radioiodine in the thyroid was examined in a 4-compartment model. This model allows equations to be derived describing the distribution of tracer iodine as a function of time. The aim of the study was to compare the predictions of the model with experimental data. Methods: Five euthyroid persons received stable iodine (200 μg, 10 mg). 1-123-uptake into the thyroid was measured with the Nal (Tl)-detector of a body counter under physiological conditions and after application of each dose of additional iodine. Actual measurements and predicted values were compared, taking into account the individual iodine supply as estimated from the thyroid uptake under physiological conditions and data from the literature. Results: Thyroid iodine uptake decreased from 80% under physiological conditions to 50% in individuals with very low iodine supply (15 μg/d) (n = 2). The uptake calculated from the model was 36%. Iodine uptake into the thyroid did not decrease in individuals with typical iodine supply, i.e. for Cologne 65-85 μg/d (n = 3). After application of 10 mg of stable iodine, uptake into the thyroid decreased in all individuals to about 5%, in accordance with the model calculations. Conclusion: Comparison of theoretical predictions with the measured values demonstrated that the model tested is well suited for describing the time course of iodine distribution and uptake within the body. It can now be used to study aspects of iodine metabolism relevant to the pharmacological administration of iodine which cannot be investigated experimentally in humans for ethical and technical reasons.

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