<p>The Mw 7.8 Kaikōura earthquake of November 14th 2016 provided unprecedented opportunities to understand how the ground deforms during large magnitude strike-slip earthquakes. The re-excavation and extension of both halves of a displaced paleoseismic trench following this earthquake provided an opportunity to test, refine, and extend back in time the known late Holocene chronology of surface rupturing earthquakes on the Kekerengu Fault. As part of this thesis, 28 organic-bearing samples were collected from a suite of new paleoseismic trenches. Six of these samples were added to the preferred age model from Little et al. (2018); this updated age model is now based on 16 total samples. Including the 2016 earthquake, six surface rupturing earthquakes since ~2000 cal. B.P. are now identified and dated on the Kekerengu Fault. Based on the latest five events (E0 to E4), this analysis yields an updated mean recurrence interval estimate for the Kekerengu Fault of 375 ± 32 yrs (1σ) since ~1650 cal. B.P. The older, sixth event (E5) is not included in the preferred model, as it may not have directly preceded E4; however, if this additional event is incorporated into an alternative age model that embraces all six identified events, the mean recurrence interval estimate (considered a maximum) calculated is 433 ± 22 yrs (1σ) since ~2000 cal. B.P. Comparison of structures on an identical trench wall logged both before and after the 2016 earthquake, and analysis of pre- and post-earthquake high resolution imagery and Digital Surface Models (DSMs), has allowed the quantification of where and how ~9 m of dextral-oblique slip was accommodated at this site during the earthquake. In addition to this, I analyse the coseismic structure of the adjoining segment of the 2016 ground rupture using detailed post-earthquake aerial orthophotography, to further investigate how geological surface structures (bulged-up moletrack structures) accommodated slip in the rupture zone. These combined analyses allowed me to identify two primary deformation mechanisms that accommodated the large coseismic slip of this earthquake, and the incremental effect of that slip on the structural geology of the rupture zone. These processes include: a) discrete slip along strike-slip faults that bound a narrow, highly deformed inner rupture zone; and b), distributed deformation within this inner rupture zone. The latter includes coseismic clockwise rotation of cohesive rafts of turf, soil and near-surface clay-rich sediment. During this process, these “turf rafts” detach from the underlying soil at a mean depth of ~0.7 m, shorten by ~2.5 m (in addition to shortening introduced by any local contractional heave), bulge upwards by < 1 m, and rotate clockwise by ~19° - while also separating from one another along fissures bounded by former (now rotated) synthetic Riedel faults. This rotational deformation accommodated ~3 m of dextral strike-slip (of a total of ~9 m), after which this rotation apparently ceased, regardless of the total slip or the local kinematics (degree of transpression) at any site. The remaining slip was transferred onto later forming, throughgoing faults as discrete displacement. Analysis of the morphology and amplitude of these moletracks suggests that an increase in the degree of transpression (value of contractional heave) at a site increases the magnitude of shortening and the finite longitudinal strain absorbed by the rotated turf rafts, but does not necessarily contribute to an increase in height (generally 0.33-0.53 m on all parts of the fault). Rather, the comparison of these moletracks with those described by other authors suggests that a more controlling factor on their height is the clay content and cohesion of material deformed into the moletracks. Finally, comparison of the before and after cross-sections of the displaced paleoseismic trench has provided, for the first time, insight into how large magnitude strike-slip ruptures are expressed in the fault-orthogonal view typical of paleoseismic trenches. Although this rupture involved ~9 m of dextral strike-slip, the cross-sectional view of the re-excavated trenches was dominated by the much lesser component of fault-perpendicular contractional heave (~1.3 m) that occurred in 2016, which did not occur in previous paleoearthquakes at the same site (these were, by contrast, transtensional). This heave was expressed as up to ~2 m of fault-transverse shortening in the inner rupture zone of the trenches, while the ~9 m of strike-slip only created cm-scale offsets across faults. Previous earthquakes at the site were expressed as cm-dm scale, mostly normal dip-separations of sub-horizontal stratigraphic units across faults, suggesting that a change in local kinematics (of ~8°) must have occurred in 2016. Such a small kinematic change may drastically impact the overall ground expression of strike-slip earthquakes - producing also complicated structures including overprinting fault strands in the rupture zone (to a few metres depth). This information poses challenges for structural geologists and paleoseismologists when interpreting (the significance of) structures in future trench walls.</p>
Coseismic deformation of the ground during large-slip strike-slip ruptures: Finite evolution of “mole tracks”
