Prevalence and Detection of qac Genes from Disinfectant-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Isolated from Salon Tools in Ishaka Town, Bushenyi District of Uganda

Bacterial infections are on a rise with causal-resistant strains increasing the economic burden to both patients and healthcare providers. Salons are recently reported as one of the sources for transmission of such resistant bacterial strains. The current study aimed at the identification of the prevalent bacteria and characterization of quaternary ammonium compound (qac) genes from disinfectant-resistant S. aureus isolated from salon tools in Ishaka town, Bushenyi District of Uganda. A total of 125 swabs were collected from different salon tools (combs, brushes, scissors, clippers, and shaving machines), and prevalent bacteria were isolated using standard microbiological methods. Identification of isolated bacteria was done using standard phenotypic methods including analytical profile index (API). Susceptibility patterns of the isolated bacteria to disinfectant were determined using the agar well diffusion method. Quaternary ammonium compound (qac) genes (qacA/B and qacC) associated with disinfectant resistances were detected from disinfectant-resistant S. aureus using multiplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and Sanger sequencing methods. Of the 125 swab samples collected from salons, 78 (62.4%) were contaminated with different bacteria species. Among the salon tools, clippers had the highest contamination of 20 (80.0%), while shaving machines had the lowest contamination of 11 (44.0%). The most prevalent bacteria identified were Staphylococcus epidermidis (28.1%) followed by S. aureus (26.5%). Of all the disinfectants tested, the highest resistance was shown with sodium hypochlorite 1%. Out of the eight (8) disinfectant-resistant S. aureus analysed for qac genes, 2 (25%) isolates (STP6 and STP9) were found to be qacA/B positive, while 2 (25%) isolates (STP8 and STP9) were found to be qacC gene positive. This study has shown that bacterial contamination of salon tools is common, coupled with resistance to disinfectants with sodium hypochlorite resistance being more common. Furthermore, observed resistance was attributed to the presence of qac genes among S. aureus isolates. A search for qac genes for disinfectant resistance from other bacteria species is recommended.

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The Effect of Blood on the Antiviral Activity of Sodium Hypochlorite, a Phenolic, and a Quaternary Ammonium Compound

Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology ◽

10.1086/501591 ◽

1999 ◽

Vol 20 (12) ◽

pp. 821-827 ◽

Cited By ~ 48

Author(s):

David J. Weber ◽

Susan L. Barbee ◽

Mark D. Sobsey ◽

William A Rutala

Keyword(s):

Sodium Hypochlorite ◽

Quaternary Ammonium ◽

Quaternary Ammonium Compound ◽

Final Concentration ◽

Ammonium Compound ◽

Complete Inactivation ◽

Test Organisms ◽

Viral Survival ◽

Simplex Virus

AbstractObjective:To assess the virucidal activity of three disinfectants (sodium hypochlorite, a phenolic, and a quaternary ammonium compound) in the presence and absence of blood.Methods:Disinfectants at varying concentrations (hypochlorite: 5,000, 500, or 50 ppm; phenolic: 1:10 or 1:128 dilution; quaternary ammonium compound: 1:10 or 1:128 dilution) were added to either saline or whole blood (final concentration, 80% or 20% blood) and mixed. Test organisms included an attenuated vaccine strain of poliovirus type 1 (prototype for relatively resistant hydrophilic viruses) and herpes simplex virus (HSV) type 1 (prototype for relatively susceptible lipophilic viruses). Virus was added to create a viral-blood suspension. Viral survival was tested at room temperature at the following times: 0, 15 seconds, 30 seconds, 1 minute, 2 minutes, 5 minutes, and 10 minutes. A neutralizer stopped the reaction, and virus was assayed using a plaque technique.Results:In the absence of blood, complete inactivation of HSV was achieved within 30 seconds with 5,000 (1:10 dilution of bleach) and 500 (1:100 dilution of bleach) ppm chlorine, 1:10 and 1:128 diluted phenolic (use dilution), and 1:10 and 1:128 diluted quaternary ammonium compound (use dilution). In the presence of 80% blood, only 5,000 ppm hypochlorite, 1:10 phenolic, and 1:10 or 1:128 quaternary ammonium compound were effective. In the absence of blood, complete inactivation of polio was achieved within 30 seconds by 5,000 and 500 ppm chlorine and 1:10 quaternary ammonium compound. In the presence of 80% blood, no solution tested was capable of completely inactivating poliovirus within 10 minutes.Conclusions:Our data suggest that, in the absence of visible blood, environmental surfaces may be disinfected with a diluted hypochlorite solution (1:10 or 1:100), a phenolic, or a quaternary ammonium compound. Based on our studies using HSV, which has similar susceptibilities to disinfectants as human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), phenolics at their use dilution and 1:100 diluted hypochlorite are unlikely to inactivate HIV or hepatitis B virus reliably in the presence of blood. Hypochlorite at a final concentration of 5,000 ppm (1:10 dilution) should be used to decontaminate blood spills, but, even after decontamination, care should be used to avoid sharps injuries.

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Antimicrobial Efficacy of a New Organic Acid Anionic Surfactant Against Various Bacterial Strains

Journal of Food Protection ◽

10.4315/0362-028x-57.6.496 ◽

1994 ◽

Vol 57 (6) ◽

pp. 496-501 ◽

Cited By ~ 7

Author(s):

LAWRENCE RESTAINO ◽

ELON W. FRAMPTON ◽

RICHARD L. BLUESTEIN ◽

JENIFER B. HEMPHILL ◽

ROBERT R. REGUTTI

Keyword(s):

Organic Acid ◽

Anionic Surfactant ◽

Quaternary Ammonium ◽

Organic Material ◽

Quaternary Ammonium Compound ◽

Ammonium Compound ◽

Peroxyacetic Acid ◽

Bacterial Strains ◽

Organic Chlorine ◽

Number Of Bacteria

The surface sanitizing properties of a buffered organic acid anionic surfactant (BOAAS) was compared with six traditional sanitizers (organic chlorine - 100 ppm, two iodophors - 25 ppm, peroxyacetic acid - 483 ppm, acid anionic - 230 ppm, and a quaternary ammonium compound - 150 ppm) in its ability to reduce Staphylococcus aureus on an inoculated Formica surface. In the absence of organic material, the traditional sanitizers were not significantly different (P > 0.05) from water in reducing S. aureus at time 0. whereas ≥ 1.2% of the BOAAS reduced a significantly greater (P < 0.05) number of bacteria. When compared with water over 60 min, only the BOAAS significantly reduced (P < 0.05) S. aureus cells. Sixty minutes after exposure, a 1.75% concentration of the BOAAS was > 100× more effective than organic chlorine. Overall, the organic material reduced the effectiveness of the traditional sanitizers and BOAAS. In the presence of 0.5% protein, BOAAS levels ≥ 0.6% significantly (P < 0.05) reduced more S. aureus cells than the quaternary ammonium sanitizer immediately after application. BOAAS concentrations ≥ 0.6% were significantly (P < 0.05) more effective in reducing S. aureus during a 60 min exposure than the organic chlorine sanitizer. In a separate efficacy study, a BOAAS concentration of 0.6% killed >5 logs of S. aureus, Salmonella typhimurium, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Listeria monocytogenes cells after 30 s exposure.

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Virucidal Efficacy of Four New Disinfectants

Journal of the American Animal Hospital Association ◽

10.5326/0380231 ◽

2002 ◽

Vol 38 (3) ◽

pp. 231-234 ◽

Cited By ~ 40

Author(s):

Nasser Z. Eleraky ◽

Leon N.D. Potgieter ◽

Melissa A. Kennedy

Keyword(s):

Sodium Hypochlorite ◽

Chlorine Dioxide ◽

Quaternary Ammonium ◽

Tap Water ◽

Quaternary Ammonium Compound ◽

Feline Calicivirus ◽

Ammonium Compound ◽

Feline Parvovirus ◽

Virucidal Efficacy ◽

Potassium Peroxymonosulfate

Virucidal efficacy was evaluated for four recently available disinfectants: chlorine dioxide, potassium peroxymonosulfate, a quaternary ammonium compound, and citricidal (grapefruit extract). Sodium hypochlorite (3%) and tap water were used as positive and negative controls respectively. Feline herpesvirus, feline calicivirus, and feline parvovirus were exposed to the manufacturers’ recommended dilutions of the evaluated disinfectants. Both chlorine dioxide and potassium peroxymonosulfate completely inactivated the three viruses used in this study. These disinfectants can aid in controlling nosocomial transmission of viruses with less of the deleterious effects of sodium hypochlorite. The quaternary ammonium compound evaluated in this study and citricidal were not effective against feline calicivirus and feline parvovirus.

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Comparative evaluation of anticandidal activity of pre-incorporated quaternary ammonium compound disinfectant alginate with 5.25% sodium hypochlorite spray disinfectant on the conventional alginate: An In Vivo study

Journal of Pierre Fauchard Academy (India Section) ◽

10.1016/j.jpfa.2017.03.001 ◽

2017 ◽

Vol 31 (2-4) ◽

pp. 99-104 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Harekrishna J. Raval ◽

Neerja Mahajan ◽

Rajesh Sethuraman ◽

Naveen Y.G.

Keyword(s):

Sodium Hypochlorite ◽

Quaternary Ammonium ◽

Comparative Evaluation ◽

Quaternary Ammonium Compound ◽

In Vivo Study ◽

Ammonium Compound ◽

Anticandidal Activity

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Transfer of Persistent Listeria monocytogenes Contamination between Food-Processing Plants Associated with a Dicing Machine

Journal of Food Protection ◽

10.4315/0362-028x-65.7.1129 ◽

2002 ◽

Vol 65 (7) ◽

pp. 1129-1133 ◽

Cited By ~ 109

Author(s):

JANNE M. LUNDÉN ◽

TIINA J. AUTIO ◽

HANNU J. KORKEALA

Keyword(s):

Stainless Steel ◽

Listeria Monocytogenes ◽

Sodium Hypochlorite ◽

Quaternary Ammonium ◽

Quaternary Ammonium Compound ◽

Pfge Type ◽

Ammonium Compound ◽

Type I ◽

Minimal Inhibitory Concentrations ◽

Steel Surfaces

The possibility of the transfer of persistent Listeria monocytogenes contamination from one plant to another with a dicing machine was evaluated, and possible reasons for persistent contamination were analyzed. A dicing machine that diced cooked meat products was transferred from plant A to plant B and then to plant C. After the transfer of the dicing machine, L. monocytogenes PFGE type I, originally found in plant A, was soon also found in plants B and C. This L. monocytogenes PFGE type I caused persistent contamination of the dicing lines in plants B and C. The persistent L. monocytogenes strain and three nonpersistent L. monocytogenes strains found in the dicing line of plant C were tested for adherence to stainless steel surfaces and minimal inhibitory concentrations of a quaternary ammonium compound and sodium hypochlorite, disinfectants widely used in the dicing lines. The persistent strain showed significantly higher adherence to stainless steel surfaces than did the nonpersistent strains. The minimal inhibitory concentrations of sodium hypochlorite were similar for all strains, and the minimal inhibitory concentrations of the quaternary ammonium compound for three of the L. monocytogenes PFGE types, including the persistent PFGE type, were high. All persistent L. monocytogenes PFGE type I isolates were found in an area with high hygienic standards, with the dicing machine being the first point of contamination. These observations show that the dicing machine sustained the contamination and suggest that the dicing machine transferred the persistent L. monocytogenes PFGE type from one plant to another.

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