Gender, sexism, and war

2021 ◽  
pp. 095162982110611
Author(s):  
Dan Reiter ◽  
Scott Wolford
Keyword(s):  
Sex Differences ◽  
Asymmetric Information ◽  
Hostile Sexism ◽  
Female Leaders ◽  
Private Benefits ◽  
Crisis Bargaining ◽  
Distribution Of Power ◽  
Willingness To Use

We analyze a model of leader gender and crisis bargaining under asymmetric information. There are no essential differences between the sexes in their willingness to use force, but sexist leaders receive a subjective boost for defeating female leaders in war and pay a subjective cost for defeat. We show that this hostile sexism can lead to war for two reasons, first by offering sufficient private benefits to make peace impossible and second by influencing an uninformed leader’s willingness to risk war. We also show that (a) the effect of leader sex on disputes and war depends on the distribution of power, (b) sexist leaders may initiate disputes at less favorable distributions of power than non-sexist leaders, and (c) sexist leaders adopt bargaining strategies that make it difficult for women to cultivate and benefit from reputations for resolve, even in the absence of sex differences in the willingness to use force.

The traditional sexual script and humor in courtship

2020 ◽  
Vol 33 (2) ◽  
pp. 197-218
Author(s):  
Elaina M. Ross ◽  
Jeffrey A. Hall
Keyword(s):  
Sex Differences ◽  
Gender Roles ◽  
Cultural Influences ◽  
Past Research ◽  
Ambivalent Sexism ◽  
Hostile Sexism ◽  
Sexual Script ◽  
Biological Sex ◽  
Sex Influence ◽  
Potential Partner

AbstractTo account for sex differences in the production, receptivity, and preference for humor in potential mates during courtship, past research has often adopted an evolutionary approach. The present manuscript will attempt to integrate evolutionary explanations with proximal social and cultural influences using the traditional sexual script and ambivalent sexism theory. The results of both Study 1 (N=227) and Study 2 (N=424) suggest that trait masculinity is positively associated with humor production in courtship, while trait femininity is associated with humor receptivity. Study 1 indicated that the traditional flirting style was associated with less humor production by women, and Study 2 indicated that hostile sexism was related to a lower preference for a humor-producing potential partner by men. A sex difference in humor production in potential partners in Study 2 was no longer detectable once trait gender and hostile sexism was accounted for. Taken together, gender roles, over and above biological sex, influence one’s own humor use in courtship and preference for humor in potential partners.

Strategic Interaction and Interstate Crises: A Bayesian Quantal Response Estimator for Incomplete Information Games

2008 ◽  
Vol 16 (3) ◽  
pp. 250-273 ◽  
Author(s):  
Justin Esarey ◽  
Bumba Mukherjee ◽  
Will H. Moore
Keyword(s):  
Asymmetric Information ◽  
Incomplete Information ◽  
Learning Process ◽  
Private Information ◽  
Statistical Treatment ◽  
Quantal Response ◽  
Crisis Bargaining ◽  
Incomplete Information Games ◽  
Information Characteristics ◽  
Information Games

Private information characteristics like resolve and audience costs are powerful influences over strategic international behavior, especially crisis bargaining. As a consequence, states face asymmetric information when interacting with one another and will presumably try to learn about each others' private characteristics by observing each others' behavior. A satisfying statistical treatment would account for the existence of asymmetric information and model the learning process. This study develops a formal and statistical framework for incomplete information games that we term the Bayesian Quantal Response Equilibrium Model (BQRE model). Our BQRE model offers three advantages over existing work: it directly incorporates asymmetric information into the statistical model's structure, estimates the influence of private information characteristics on behavior, and mimics the temporal learning process that we believe takes place in international politics.

Influence of Sex Differences in Leaders' Behavior

2005 ◽  
Vol 96 (2) ◽  
pp. 499-510 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jennifer A. Moss ◽  
John E. Barbuto ◽  
Gina S. Matkin ◽  
Tzu-Yun Chin
Keyword(s):  
Sex Differences ◽  
Hierarchical Linear Modeling ◽  
Influence Tactics ◽  
Insurance Company ◽  
Female Leaders ◽  
Influence Strategies ◽  
Linear Modeling ◽  
Level Data ◽  
Downward Influence ◽  
Age Range

Sex differences in influence tactics were examined with a sample of 269 followers (67 men, 202 women) at a large midwestern national insurance company who rated the downward influence tactics used by their direct supervisors. Downward influence tactics are behaviors used by leaders to gain compliance from followers. One department within the organization was identified as a source for participants in the study. Participation was voluntary. The age range for the sample was 21 to 65 years, with the largest percentage falling in the 40–49 year range ( M = 3.8, SD = .8). Hierarchical linear modeling procedures were utilized to analyze the multiple level data (leader and follower) and to examine variables within the organization at different levels of analysis. Leader participants were asked to solicit their followers to complete an influence tactic measure, which consisted of the most reliable subscales taken from the Influence Behavior Questionnaire, Schriesheim and Hinkin Influence Measure, and the Profiles of Organizational Influence Strategies. The integrated measure resulted in a 45-item scale. It was hypothesized that, overall, followers would report that male leaders would use hard influence tactics more frequently than female leaders. On the other hand, followers would report that female leaders would use soft influence tactics more frequently than male leaders. When differentiating followers by sex, however, we expected that male followers would report more than female followers that their leaders use hard tactics more frequently. Also, we expected that female followers would report (more than male followers) that their leaders use soft tactics more frequently. Overall, followers reported that male leaders used significantly more personal appeal and consultation, so called “soft tactics,” with their followers than did female leaders. Female followers reported that their leaders (both male and female) used consultation and inspirational appeal more frequently. In contrast, male followers reported that their leaders used exchange, so called “hard tactics,” more frequently.

scholarly journals Pandemic leadership: Sex differences and their evolutionary–developmental origins

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Severi Luoto ◽  
Marco Antonio Correa Varella
Keyword(s):  
Sex Differences ◽  
Leadership Styles ◽  
Risk Taking ◽  
Disease Outbreaks ◽  
Health Concern ◽  
Mammalian Brain ◽  
Sexually Dimorphic ◽  
Female Leaders ◽  
Global Pandemic ◽  
Evolution By Natural Selection

The COVID-19 pandemic has caused a global societal, economic, and social upheaval unseen in living memory. There have been substantial differences in the kinds of policies implemented by political decision-makers to prevent the spread of the virus, to test the population, and to manage infected patients. Among other factors, these policies vary with politicians’ sex: early findings indicate that, on average, female leaders seem more focused on minimizing direct human suffering caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus, while male leaders implement riskier short-term decisions, possibly aiming to minimize economic disruptions. These sex differences are consistent with broader findings in psychology, reflecting women’s stronger empathy, higher pathogen disgust, health concern, care-taking orientation, and dislike for the suffering of other people—as well as men’s higher risk-taking, Machiavellianism, psychopathy, narcissism, and focus on financial indicators of success and status. This review article contextualizes sex differences in pandemic leadership in an evolutionary framework. Evolution by natural selection is the only known process in nature that organizes populations of organisms into higher degrees of functional order, or counteracts the unavoidable disorder that would otherwise ensue, and is therefore essential for explaining the origins of human sex differences. Differential sexual selection and parental investment between males and females, together with the sexual differentiation of the mammalian brain, drive sex differences in cognition and behavioral dispositions, underlying men’s and women’s leadership styles and decision-making during a global pandemic. We propose the sexually dimorphic leadership specialization hypothesis to explain how general psychobehavioral sex differences have been exapted during human evolution to create sexually dimorphic leadership styles. They may be facultatively co-opted by societies when facing different kinds of ecological and/or sociopolitical threats, such as disease outbreaks or intergroup aggression. Early evidence indicates that against the invisible viral foe that can bring nations to their knees, the strategic circumspection of empathic feminine health “worriers” may bring more effective and humanitarian outcomes than the devil-may-care incaution of masculine risk-taking “warriors”.

Do Women Make More Credible Threats? Gender Stereotypes, Audience Costs, and Crisis Bargaining

2020 ◽  
Vol 74 (4) ◽  
pp. 872-895 ◽  
Author(s):  
Joshua A. Schwartz ◽  
Christopher W. Blair
Keyword(s):  
Gender Equality ◽  
Gender Stereotypes ◽  
Female Leaders ◽  
International Crises ◽  
Efficient Mechanism ◽  
Crisis Bargaining ◽  
Audience Costs ◽  
Advantages And Disadvantages ◽  
Political Incentives ◽  
Survey Experiments

AbstractAs more women attain executive office, it is important to understand how gender dynamics affect international politics. Toward this end, we present the first evidence that gender stereotypes affect leaders’ abilities to generate audience costs. Using survey experiments, we show that female leaders have political incentives to combat gender stereotypes that women are weak by acting “tough” during international military crises. Most prominently, we find evidence that female leaders, and male leaders facing female opponents, pay greater inconsistency costs for backing down from threats than male leaders do against fellow men. These findings point to particular advantages and disadvantages women have in international crises. Namely, female leaders are better able to tie hands—an efficient mechanism for establishing credibility in crises. However, this bargaining advantage means female leaders will also have a harder time backing down from threats. Our findings have critical implications for debates over the effects of greater gender equality in executive offices worldwide.

Think Manager – Think Male in Adolescents and its Relation to Sexism and Emotions in Leadership

2013 ◽  
Vol 16 ◽  
Author(s):  
Cristina García-Ael ◽  
Isabel Cuadrado ◽  
Fernando Molero
Keyword(s):  
Negative Affect ◽  
Emotional Expression ◽  
Positive Emotions ◽  
Leadership Behaviors ◽  
Leadership Role ◽  
Hostile Sexism ◽  
Female Leaders ◽  
Sexist Beliefs ◽  
Task Oriented

AbstractFrom the perspective of the Think manager – Think male, this study was conducted to examine the type of leadership role depending on gender in a sample of 158 Spanish adolescents –according to three types of leaders: “male middle leader”, “female middle leader” and “middle leader in general”. The kind of emotional expression (positive and negative) evoked by their leadership behaviors (task– and relationship– oriented) was also analyzed. Lastly, whether adolescents’ sexist beliefs affected the attribution of traits and the emotional expression towards these leaders was examined. Results showed that task-oriented traits were more characteristic of the leadership role than relationship-oriented traits. Adolescents expressed more positive emotions towards a task-oriented leader and towards a leader behaving in ways associated with both task– and relationship– oriented styles, but only for men. Finally, hostile sexism predicted fewer task-oriented traits to female leaders, more negative affect towards task-oriented male leaders and towards counter-stereotypic leaders. These results were moderated by the sex of adolescents.

Sex and Leadership Styles: A Meta-Analysis of Research Published in the 1990s

2004 ◽  
Vol 94 (1) ◽  
pp. 3-18 ◽  
Author(s):  
Marloes L. Van Engen ◽  
Tineke M. Willemsen
Keyword(s):  
Transformational Leadership ◽  
Sex Differences ◽  
Leadership Styles ◽  
Transactional Leadership ◽  
Leadership Behavior ◽  
Meta Analysis ◽  
Female Leaders ◽  
Leadership Analysis ◽  
Transformational And Transactional Leadership ◽  
Task Oriented

Empirical research on sex differences in leadership styles, published between 1987 and 2000 in peer-reviewed journals, is reviewed by means of a metaanalysis. The leadership styles examined are interpersonal, task-oriented, democratic versus autocratic, and transformational and transactional leadership. Analysis showed that evidence for sex differences in leadership behavior is mixed, demonstrating that women tend to use more democratic and transformational leadership styles than men do, whereas no sex differences are found on the other leadership styles. Sex differences in leadership styles are contingent upon the context in which male and female leaders work, as both the type of organization in which the leader works and the setting of the study turn out to be moderators of sex differences in leadership styles.

A Rent-Protection Explanation for SEO Flotation-Method Choice

2016 ◽  
Vol 51 (3) ◽  
pp. 1039-1069 ◽  
Author(s):  
Xueping Wu ◽  
Zheng Wang ◽  
Jun Yao
Keyword(s):  
Asymmetric Information ◽  
Firm Value ◽  
Equity Issuance ◽  
Announcement Effect ◽  
Private Benefits ◽  
Controlling Shareholders ◽  
Method Choice ◽  
Flotation Method ◽  
Rights Issues

AbstractWe model how a rent-protection motive drives the choice of flotation method in new equity issuance between two polar cases: rights issues and cash offers. Unexpected new blockholders would emerge in control-diluting cash offers and share in jealously guarded control benefits. But rights issues help the incumbent controlling shareholders avoid control dilution and safeguard their private benefits. Under asymmetric information about private benefits, the choice of flotation method can convey information about hidden private benefits and hence firm value. Our model can explain even a negative announcement effect of rights issues, and it supports not just one but three important equilibriums.

scholarly journals Bridging the Gap: How Gender Influences Spanish Politicians’ Activity on Twitter

2021 ◽  
Vol 2 (3) ◽  
pp. 469-483
Author(s):  
Frederic Guerrero-Solé ◽  
Cristina Perales-García
Keyword(s):  
Gender Differences ◽  
Social Media ◽  
Female Leaders ◽  
Unequal Distribution ◽  
Male And Female ◽  
The Social ◽  
Female Politicians ◽  
Distribution Of Power ◽  
Political Spectrum ◽  
Gender Influences

Women have historically been underrepresented in politics. However, in the last few decades, more and more women have been elected to both upper and lower houses, particularly in Spain. Social media has become one >of the main channels for women to gain visibility, but the issue of unequal distribution of power and influence between men and women remains. This paper sheds light on gender differences among politicians on Twitter by analyzing the social media activity and influence of 277 of the 350 Members of the Spanish Congress of Deputies from March to June 2020. Our research shows there are still major gender differences regarding audience figures and amplification and that both male and female politicians still largely retweet more men than women. In addition, we found significant differences between parties and across the political spectrum, although these are less prominent (albeit not neutralized) in parties with a female leader. This is in keeping with studies that have found broad similarities between male and female politicians’ communicative practices, but a persistently large gap to be bridged in terms of their online influence. Female leaders are proposed as a means to bridge this gap.

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