scholarly journals Insecticide resistance status of Aedes aegypti in Bangladesh

2020 ◽  
Vol 13 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Hasan Mohammad Al-Amin ◽  
Fatema Tuj Johora ◽  
Seth R. Irish ◽  
Muhammad Riadul Haque Hossainey ◽  
Lucrecia Vizcaino ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Aedes Aegypti ◽  
Insecticide Resistance ◽  
Pyrethroid Resistance ◽  
Control Strategies ◽  
Resistance Mechanisms ◽  
Capital City ◽  
Detoxification Enzymes ◽  
Knockdown Resistance ◽  
Metabolic Resistance ◽  
Pyrethroid Insecticides

Abstract Background Arboviral diseases, including dengue and chikungunya, are major public health concerns in Bangladesh where there have been unprecedented levels of transmission reported in recent years. The primary approach to control these diseases is to control the vector Aedes aegypti using pyrethroid insecticides. Although chemical control has long been practiced, no comprehensive analysis of Ae. aegypti susceptibility to insecticides has been conducted to date. The aim of this study was to determine the insecticide resistance status of Ae. aegypti in Bangladesh and investigate the role of detoxification enzymes and altered target site sensitivity as resistance mechanisms. Methods Eggs of Aedes mosquitoes were collected using ovitraps from five districts across Bangladesh and in eight neighborhoods of the capital city Dhaka, from August to November 2017. CDC bottle bioassays were conducted for permethrin, deltamethrin, malathion, and bendiocarb using 3- to 5-day-old F0–F2 non-blood-fed female mosquitoes. Biochemical assays were conducted to detect metabolic resistance mechanisms, and real-time PCR was performed to determine the frequencies of the knockdown resistance (kdr) mutations Gly1016, Cys1534, and Leu410. Results High levels of resistance to permethrin were detected in all Ae. aegypti populations, with mortality ranging from 0 to 14.8% at the diagnostic dose. Substantial resistance continued to be detected against higher (2×) doses of permethrin (5.1–44.4% mortality). Susceptibility to deltamethrin and malathion varied between populations while complete susceptibility to bendiocarb was observed in all populations. Significantly higher levels of esterase and oxidase activity were detected in most of the test populations as compared to the susceptible reference Rockefeller strain. A significant association was detected between permethrin resistance and the presence of Gly1016 and Cys1534 homozygotes. The frequency of kdr (knockdown resistance) alleles varied across the Dhaka Aedes populations. Leu410 was not detected in any of the tested populations. Conclusions The detection of widespread pyrethroid resistance and multiple resistance mechanisms highlights the urgency for implementing alternate Ae. aegypti control strategies. In addition, implementing routine monitoring of insecticide resistance in Ae. aegypti in Bangladesh will lead to a greater understanding of susceptibility trends over space and time, thereby enabling the development of improved control strategies.

scholarly journals Insecticide resistance status of Aedes aegypti in Bangladesh

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Hasan Mohammad Al-Amin ◽  
Fatema Tuj Johora ◽  
Seth R. Irish ◽  
Muhammad Riadul Haque Hossainey ◽  
Lucrecia Vizcaino ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Aedes Aegypti ◽  
Insecticide Resistance ◽  
Pyrethroid Resistance ◽  
Control Strategies ◽  
Resistance Mechanisms ◽  
Capital City ◽  
Detoxification Enzymes ◽  
Health Concern ◽  
Metabolic Resistance ◽  
Pyrethroid Insecticides

AbstractBackgroundArboviral diseases including dengue and chikungunya are major public health concern in Bangladesh, with unprecedented levels of transmission reported in recent years. The primary approach to control these diseases is control of Aedes aegypti using pyrethroid insecticides. Although chemical control is long-practiced, no comprehensive analysis of Ae. aegypti susceptibility to insecticides has previously been conducted. This study aimed to determine the insecticide resistance status of Ae. aegypti in Bangladesh and investigate the role of detoxification enzymes and altered target site sensitivity as resistance mechanisms.MethodsAedes eggs were collected using ovitraps from five districts across the country and in eight neighborhoods of the capital city Dhaka from August to November 2017. CDC bottle bioassays were conducted for permethrin, deltamethrin, malathion, and bendiocarb using 3-5-day old F0-F2 non-blood fed female mosquitoes. Biochemical assays were conducted to detect metabolic resistance mechanisms and real-time PCR was performed to determine the frequencies of the knockdown resistance (kdr) mutations Gly1016, Cys1534, and Leu410.ResultsHigh levels of resistance to permethrin were detected in all Ae. aegypti populations, with mortality ranging from 0 – 14.8% at the diagnostic dose. Substantial resistance continued to be detected against higher (2X) doses of permethrin (5.1 – 44.4% mortality). Susceptibility to deltamethrin and malathion varied between populations while complete susceptibility to bendiocarb was observed in all populations. Significantly higher levels of esterase and oxidase activity were detected in most of the test populations as compared to the susceptible reference Rockefeller strain. A significant association was detected between permethrin resistance and the presence of Gly1016 and Cys1534 homozygotes. The frequency of kdr alleles varied across the Dhaka populations, and Leu410 was not detected in any of the tested populations.ConclusionsThe detection of widespread pyrethroid resistance and multiple mechanisms highlights the urgency for implementing alternate Ae. aegypti control strategies. In addition, implementing routine monitoring of insecticide resistance in Ae. aegypti in Bangladesh will lead to a greater understanding of susceptibility trends over space and time, thereby enabling the development of improved control strategies.

scholarly journals Phenotypic and haplotypic profiles of insecticide resistance in populations of Aedes aegypti larvae (Diptera: Culicidae) from central Lao PDR

2021 ◽  
Vol 49 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Takaki Shimono ◽  
Seiji Kanda ◽  
Pheophet Lamaningao ◽  
Yuki Murakami ◽  
Andrew Waleluma Darcy ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Aedes Aegypti ◽  
Insecticide Resistance ◽  
Vector Control ◽  
Pyrethroid Resistance ◽  
Control Strategies ◽  
Lao Pdr ◽  
Resistance Mechanisms ◽  
Cytochrome P450 Monooxygenases ◽  
Bacillus Thuringiensis Israelensis ◽  
Vector Management

Abstract Background Aedes aegypti, which is widely distributed in the Lao People’s Democratic Republic (PDR), is the primary vector of arboviral diseases. Chemical insecticides have been intensively used to eliminate mosquito-borne diseases, resulting in the development of insecticide resistance. However, little is known about the insecticide resistance of mosquito populations in Lao PDR and the mechanisms responsible for it, which have important implications for vector management programs. Here, we examined the phenotypic and haplotypic profiles of insecticide resistance in populations of Ae. aegypti larvae from central Lao PDR. Methods Ae. aegypti larvae were collected from four sites in Lao PDR, and their susceptibility to temephos, deltamethrin, permethrin, and Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis (Bti) was tested using larval bioassays. Synergistic tests were also conducted to evaluate the activity of insecticide-metabolizing enzymes in the larvae. Deltamethrin-resistant and Deltamethrin-susceptible larvae were then genotyped for knockdown resistance (kdr) mutations to determine the associations between each genotype and resistance. Results Ae. aegypti larvae from central Lao PDR were considered to be “resistant” (<98% mortality) to organophosphates and pyrethroids. The bio-insecticide Bti remains effective against such larvae. The resistance mechanisms of Ae. aegypti larvae were found to vary among populations, especially for pyrethroid resistance. Kdr mutations were significantly associated with deltamethrin resistance in Ae. aegypti from the Xaythany population. In contrast, synergist assays with piperonyl butoxide suggested that cytochrome P450 monooxygenases played an important role in the resistance seen in the Khounkham and Thakhek populations. Conclusion This study obtained information that will aid the design and implementation of insecticide-based vector management of Ae. aegypti in central Lao PDR. Ae. aegypti larvae from central Lao PDR were highly susceptible to Bti, while they were resistant to temephos at a diagnostic dose of 0.0286 mg/L. Given the limited number of insecticides that are approved for vector control, it is important to alternate between temephos and other larvicides, such as Bti and pyriproxyfen. The differences in pyrethroid resistance mechanisms seen among the Ae. aegypti populations highlight the need to tailor vector-control strategies to each region to increase the success of dengue control in Lao PDR.

scholarly journals Absence of knockdown mutations in pyrethroid and DDT resistant populations of the main malaria vectors in Colombia

2019 ◽  
Vol 18 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Lorena I. Orjuela ◽  
Diego A. Álvarez-Diaz ◽  
Juliana A. Morales ◽  
Nelson Grisales ◽  
Martha L. Ahumada ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Insecticide Resistance ◽  
Pyrethroid Resistance ◽  
Resistance Mechanism ◽  
Point Mutations ◽  
Resistance Mechanisms ◽  
Malaria Vectors ◽  
Anopheles Darlingi ◽  
Metabolic Resistance ◽  
Pyrethroid Insecticides ◽  
Voltage Gated Sodium Channels

Abstract Background Knockdown resistance (kdr) is a well-characterized target-site insecticide resistance mechanism that is associated with DDT and pyrethroid resistance. Even though insecticide resistance to pyrethroids and DDT have been reported in Anopheles albimanus, Anopheles benarrochi sensu lato (s.l.), Anopheles darlingi, Anopheles nuneztovari s.l., and Anopheles pseudopunctipennis s.l. malaria vectors in Latin America, there is a knowledge gap on the role that kdr resistance mechanisms play in this resistance. The aim of this study was to establish the role that kdr mechanisms play in pyrethroid and DDT resistance in the main malaria vectors in Colombia, in addition to previously reported metabolic resistance mechanisms, such as mixed function oxidases (MFO) and nonspecific esterases (NSE) enzyme families. Methods Surviving (n = 62) and dead (n = 67) An. nuneztovari s.l., An. darlingi and An. albimanus mosquitoes exposed to diagnostic concentrations of DDT and pyrethroid insecticides were used to amplify and sequence a ~ 225 bp fragment of the voltage-gated sodium channels (VGSC) gene. This fragment spanning codons 1010, 1013 and 1014 at the S6 segment of domain II to identify point mutations, which have been associated with insecticide resistance in different species of Anopheles malaria vectors. Results No kdr mutations were detected in the coding sequence of this fragment in 129 samples, 62 surviving mosquitoes and 67 dead mosquitoes, of An. darlingi, An. nuneztovari s.l. and An. albimanus. Conclusion Mutations in the VGSC gene, most frequently reported in other species of the genus Anopheles resistant to pyrethroid and DDT, are not associated with the low-intensity resistance detected to these insecticides in some populations of the main malaria vectors in Colombia. These results suggest that metabolic resistance mechanisms previously reported in these populations might be responsible for the resistance observed.

scholarly journals Permethrin resistance in Aedes aegypti: Genomic variants that confer knockdown resistance, recovery, and death

PLoS Genetics ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 17 (6) ◽  
pp. e1009606
Author(s):  
Karla Saavedra-Rodriguez ◽  
Corey L. Campbell ◽  
Saul Lozano ◽  
Patricia Penilla-Navarro ◽  
Alma Lopez-Solis ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Aedes Aegypti ◽  
Pyrethroid Resistance ◽  
Disease Outbreaks ◽  
Resistance Mechanisms ◽  
Target Site ◽  
Detoxification Enzymes ◽  
Nucleotide Polymorphisms ◽  
Knockdown Resistance ◽  
High Association ◽  
Genomic Markers

Pyrethroids are one of the few classes of insecticides available to control Aedes aegypti, the major vector of dengue, chikungunya, and Zika viruses. Unfortunately, evolving mechanisms of pyrethroid resistance in mosquito populations threaten our ability to control disease outbreaks. Two common pyrethroid resistance mechanisms occur in Ae. aegypti: 1) knockdown resistance, which involves amino acid substitutions at the pyrethroid target site—the voltage-gated sodium channel (VGSC)—and 2) enhanced metabolism by detoxification enzymes. When a heterogeneous population of mosquitoes is exposed to pyrethroids, different responses occur. During exposure, a proportion of mosquitoes exhibit immediate knockdown, whereas others are not knocked-down and are designated knockdown resistant (kdr). When these individuals are removed from the source of insecticide, the knocked-down mosquitoes can either remain in this status and lead to dead or recover within a few hours. The proportion of these phenotypic responses is dependent on the pyrethroid concentration and the genetic background of the population tested. In this study, we sequenced and performed pairwise genome comparisons between kdr, recovered, and dead phenotypes in a pyrethroid-resistant colony from Tapachula, Mexico. We identified single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) associated with each phenotype and identified genes that are likely associated with the mechanisms of pyrethroid resistance, including detoxification, the cuticle, and insecticide target sites. We identified high association between kdr and mutations at VGSC and moderate association with additional insecticide target site, detoxification, and cuticle protein coding genes. Recovery was associated with cuticle proteins, the voltage-dependent calcium channel, and a different group of detoxification genes. We provide a list of detoxification genes under directional selection in this field-resistant population. Their functional roles in pyrethroid metabolism and their potential uses as genomic markers of resistance require validation.

scholarly journals Insecticide resistance status and mechanisms in Aedes aegypti populations from Senegal

2021 ◽  
Vol 15 (5) ◽  
pp. e0009393
Author(s):  
Ndeye Marie Sene ◽  
Konstantinos Mavridis ◽  
El Hadji Ndiaye ◽  
Cheikh Tidiane Diagne ◽  
Alioune Gaye ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Aedes Aegypti ◽  
Insecticide Resistance ◽  
Vector Control ◽  
Pyrethroid Resistance ◽  
Control Strategies ◽  
Resistance Mechanisms ◽  
Northern Region ◽  
Target Site ◽  
Limited Information ◽  
Resistance Mutations

Aedes aegypti is the main epidemic vector of arboviruses in Africa. In Senegal, control activities are mainly limited to mitigation of epidemics, with limited information available for Ae. aegypti populations. A better understanding of the current Ae. aegypti susceptibility status to various insecticides and relevant resistance mechanisms involved is needed for the implementation of effective vector control strategies. The present study focuses on the detection of insecticide resistance and reveals the related mechanisms in Ae. aegypti populations from Senegal. Bioassays were performed on Ae. aegypti adults from nine Senegalese localities (Matam, Louga, Barkedji, Ziguinchor, Mbour, Fatick, Dakar, Kédougou and Touba). Mosquitoes were exposed to four classes of insecticides using the standard WHO protocols. Resistance mechanisms were investigated by genotyping for pyrethroid target site resistance mutations (V1016G, V1016I, F1534C and S989P) and measuring gene expression levels of key detoxification genes (CYP6BB2, CYP9J26, CYP9J28, CYP9J32, CYP9M6, CCEae3a and GSTD4). All collected populations were resistant to DDT and carbamates except for the ones in Matam (Northern region). Resistance to permethrin was uniformly detected in mosquitoes from all areas. Except for Barkédji and Touba, all populations were characterized by a susceptibility to 0.75% Permethrin. Susceptibility to type II pyrethroids was detected only in the Southern regions (Kédougou and Ziguinchor). All mosquito populations were susceptible to 5% Malathion, but only Kédougou and Matam mosquitoes were susceptible to 0.8% Malathion. All populations were resistant to 0.05% Pirimiphos-methyl, whereas those from Louga, Mbour and Barkédji, also exhibited resistance to 1% Fenitrothion. None of the known target site pyrethroid resistance mutations was present in the mosquito samples included in the genotyping analysis (performed in > 1500 samples). In contrast, a remarkably high (20-70-fold) overexpression of major detoxification genes wasobserved, suggesting that insecticide resistance is mostly mediated through metabolic mechanisms. These data provide important evidence to support dengue vector control in Senegal.

scholarly journals Voltage-Gated Sodium Channel (Vgsc) Mutation-Based Pyrethroid Resistance in Aedes aegypti Populations of Three Endemic Dengue Risk Areas of Sri Lanka

2021 ◽  
Vol 2021 ◽  
pp. 1-10
Author(s):  
Tharaka Ranathunge ◽  
Lahiru Udayanga ◽  
Sumudu Sarasija ◽  
Samudra Karunathilaka ◽  
Shavindhya Nawarathne ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Sri Lanka ◽  
Insecticide Resistance ◽  
Pyrethroid Resistance ◽  
Control Strategies ◽  
Resistance Mechanisms ◽  
Allele Frequencies ◽  
Multiple Use ◽  
Pyrethroid Insecticides ◽  
Dengue Control ◽  
Mutation Allele

Background. Pyrethroid insecticides are widely used in many countries for chemical-based control of Ae. aegypti. Regardless of their efficacy, the constant use of insecticides has induced insecticide resistance mechanisms, such as knockdown resistance (kdr) in mosquitoes. Sri Lankan Vector Controlling Entities (VCE) have been using a variety of pyrethroid insecticides as the primary approach for dengue control. However, development of any resistance among the Aedes mosquitoes has been limitedly studied in the country. Therefore, the current study was conducted to evaluate the prevalence of F1534C, V1016G, and S989P mutations among Ae. aegypti mosquito populations in three dengue endemic high-risk regions of Sri Lanka. Methodology. Immature (both pupae and larvae) stages of Ae. aegypti mosquitoes were collected from Colombo, Gampaha, and Kandy districts of Sri Lanka from February 2018 to December 2019. Polymerase Chain Reaction- (PCR-) based assay for molecular genotyping of mutations was performed to identify the prevalence of kdr mutations in collected Ae. aegypti populations, separately. The frequencies of the resistant and susceptible kdr alleles were determined by using the Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium. Results. The Ae. aegypti populations from Colombo, Gampaha, and Kandy districts showed 46%, 42%, and 22% of F1534C mutation allele frequencies, along with 15%, 12%, and 6% of V1016G mutation allele frequencies, respectively. The mutation allele frequencies of S989 in Colombo, Gampaha, and Kandy districts were 9.5%, 8.5%, and 4.5%, respectively. The wild-type (PP) genotype remained predominant within all the three districts, whereas the homogenous (QQ) mutation genotype occurred only in minority. The abundance of Q allele frequency in Ae. aegypti mosquitoes was relatively higher for all the three mutations in Colombo. Conclusions. The findings clearly indicate that long-term insecticide applications and multiple use of pyrethroids have led to the acquisition of kdr mutations, leading to the development of insecticide resistance among local Ae. aegypti populations, especially in the Colombo and Gampaha districts. Therefore, evaluation of the prevalence levels of these kdr mutations highlights the necessity for shifting towards novel vector control strategies.

scholarly journals Functional genetic validation of key genes conferring insecticide resistance in the major African malaria vector, Anopheles gambiae

2019 ◽  
Author(s):  
Adriana Adolfi ◽  
Beth Poulton ◽  
Amalia Anthousi ◽  
Stephanie Macilwee ◽  
Hilary Ranson ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Public Health ◽  
Insecticide Resistance ◽  
Anopheles Gambiae ◽  
Pyrethroid Resistance ◽  
Control Strategies ◽  
Resistance Mechanisms ◽  
Effective Control ◽  
Cross Resistance ◽  
Toxic Metabolite ◽  
Control Programs

ABSTRACTResistance in Anopheles gambiae to members of all four major classes (pyrethroids, carbamates, organochlorines and organophosphates) of public health insecticides limits effective control of malaria transmission in Africa. Increased expression of detoxifying enzymes has been associated with resistance, but direct functional validation in An. gambiae has been lacking. Here we perform transgenic analysis using the GAL4/UAS system to examine insecticide resistance phenotypes conferred by increased expression of the three genes - Cyp6m2, Cyp6p3 and Gste2 - most often found upregulated in resistant An. gambiae. We report the first evidence in An. gambiae that organophosphate and organochlorine resistance is conferred by overexpression of GSTE2 in a broad tissue profile. Pyrethroid and carbamate resistance is bestowed by similar Cyp6p3 overexpression, and Cyp6m2 confers only pyrethroid resistance when overexpressed in the same tissues. Conversely, such Cyp6m2 overexpression increases susceptibility to the organophosphate malathion, presumably due to conversion to a more toxic metabolite. No resistant phenotypes are conferred when either Cyp6 gene overexpression is restricted to the midgut or oenocytes, answering long standing questions related to the importance of these tissues in resistance to contact insecticides. Validation of genes conferring resistance provides markers to guide control strategies, and the observed negative cross-resistance due to Cyp6m2 gives credence to proposed dual insecticide strategies to overcome pyrethroid resistance. These trasnsgenic An. gambiae resistant lines are being used to test potential liabilities in new active compounds early in development.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENTInsecticide resistance in Anopheles gambiae mosquitoes can derail malaria control programs, and to overcome it we need to discover the underlying molecular basis. Here, for the first time, we characterise three genes most often associated with insecticide resistance directly by their overproduction in genetically modified An. gambiae. We show that overexpression of each gene confers resistance to representatives of at least one insecticide class and, taken together, the three genes provide cross-resistance to all four major insecticide classes currently used in public health. These data validate the candidate genes as markers to monitor the spread of resistance in mosquito populations. The modified mosquitoes produced are also valuable tools to pre-screen new insecticides for potential liabilities to existing resistance mechanisms.

scholarly journals Frequency of kdr mutations in the voltage-sensitive sodium channel (VSSC) gene in Aedes aegypti from Yogyakarta and implications for Wolbachia-infected mosquito trials

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Juli R. Wuliandari ◽  
Ary A. Hoffmann ◽  
Warsito Tantowijoyo ◽  
Nancy M. Endersby-Harshman
Keyword(s):  
Aedes Aegypti ◽  
Inner City ◽  
Insecticide Resistance ◽  
Sodium Channel ◽  
Pyrethroid Resistance ◽  
Infected Mosquito ◽  
Simultaneous Occurrence ◽  
Pyrethroid Insecticides ◽  
Background Population ◽  
Homozygous Mutant

Abstract Background : In the inner city of Yogyakarta, Indonesia, insecticide resistance is expected in the main dengue vector, Aedes aegypti , because of the intensive local application of pyrethroid insecticides. However, detailed information about the nature of resistance in this species is required to assist the release of Wolbachia mosquitoes in a dengue control program so that we can ensure that insecticide resistance in the strain of Ae. aegypti being released matches that of the background population. Methods: High-resolution melt genotyping was used to screen for kdr mutations associated with pyrethroid resistance in the voltage-sensitive sodium channel (V SSC ) gene in Ae. aegypti of some areas in the inner city of Yogyakarta. Results: The results show that the V1016G mutation predominated, with individuals homozygous for the 1016G allele at a frequency of 82.1% and the mutant allele G at a frequency of 92%. Two patterns of co-occurrence of mutations were detected in this study, homozygous individuals V1016G/S989P; and heterozygous individuals V1016G/F1534C/S989P. We found the simultaneous occurrence of kdr mutations V1016G and F1534C at all collection sites, but not within individual mosquitoes. Homozygous mutants at locus 1016 were homozygous wildtype at locus 1534 and vice versa, and heterozygous V1016G were also heterozygous for F1534C. The most common tri-locus genotype co-occurrences were homozygous mutant 1016GG and homozygous wild-type FF1534, combined with homozygous mutant 989PP (GG/FF/PP) at a frequency of 38.28%. Conclusions: Given the relatively small differences in frequency of resistance alleles across the city area, locality variations in resistance should have minor implications for the success of Wolbachia mosquito trials being undertaken in the Yogyakarta area.

scholarly journals Transcriptomic and proteomic analysis of pyrethroid resistance in the CKR strain of Aedes aegypti

2021 ◽  
Vol 15 (11) ◽  
pp. e0009871
Author(s):  
Haina Sun ◽  
Robert W. Mertz ◽  
Letícia B. Smith ◽  
Jeffrey G. Scott
Keyword(s):  
Aedes Aegypti ◽  
Proteomic Analysis ◽  
Molecular Basis ◽  
Pyrethroid Resistance ◽  
Resistance Mechanisms ◽  
Chromosome 1 ◽  
Cytochrome P450 Monooxygenases ◽  
Rna Seq ◽  
Proteomics Data ◽  
Pyrethroid Insecticides

Aedes aegypti is an important vector of human viral diseases. This mosquito is distributed globally and thrives in urban environments, making it a serious risk to human health. Pyrethroid insecticides have been the mainstay for control of adult A. aegypti for decades, but resistance has evolved, making control problematic in some areas. One major mechanism of pyrethroid resistance is detoxification by cytochrome P450 monooxygenases (CYPs), commonly associated with the overexpression of one or more CYPs. Unfortunately, the molecular basis underlying this mechanism remains unknown. We used a combination of RNA-seq and proteomic analysis to evaluate the molecular basis of pyrethroid resistance in the highly resistant CKR strain of A. aegypti. The CKR strain has the resistance mechanisms from the well-studied Singapore (SP) strain introgressed into the susceptible Rockefeller (ROCK) strain genome. The RNA-seq and proteomics data were complimentary; each offering insights that the other technique did not provide. However, transcriptomic results did not quantitatively mirror results of the proteomics. There were 10 CYPs which had increased expression of both transcripts and proteins. These CYPs appeared to be largely trans-regulated, except for some CYPs for which we could not rule out gene duplication. We identified 65 genes and lncRNAs as potentially being responsible for elevating the expression of CYPs in CKR. Resistance was associated with multiple loci on chromosome 1 and at least one locus on chromosome 3. We also identified five CYPs that were overexpressed only as proteins, suggesting that stabilization of CYP proteins could be a mechanism of resistance. Future studies to increase the resolution of the resistance loci, and to examine the candidate genes and lncRNAs identified here will greatly enhance our understanding of CYP-mediated resistance in A. aegypti.

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