scholarly journals The metapragmatics of and everything in Persian

2010 ◽  
Vol 10 (1) ◽  
pp. 133-150 ◽  
Author(s):  
Vahid Parvaresh ◽  
Manoochehr Tavangar

This article tries to investigate the metapragmatic functions of and everything in Persian within the formulaic construction and everything, but. The focus of attention will be, following Bublitz and Hübler (2007), the pragmatics of this meta-utterance when it is actually performed as a means of commenting on and interfering with current discourse. In this way, it will be argued that although this construction, like its equivalent in English, does have a fixed underlying structure according to which it functions, it allows, unlike its English equivalent, for the construction of other surface structures fulfilling the same metapragmatic role. Here surface constructions are brought about by the use of Persian's different synonyms for the English but. Moreover, it will also be argued that Persian does not seem to have a formal equivalent to the English and whatnot.

Author(s):  
Kobyakova I.K. ◽  
Chaika T.Yu.

Мета статті– уточнити основні положення класичної концепції глибинних структур речення в контексті перекладацьких трансформацій і перекладацької майстерності, виявити основні труднощі при використанні концепції глибинних структур під час перекладу і визначити оптимальні шляхи їх вирішення.Методи. У процесі дослідження були використані такі методи: аналізу і синтезу (визначення сутнісних характеристик поняття «глибинна структура»); зіставлень (дослідження моделей трансформації і їх особливостей у процесі перекладу тек-стів економічної спрямованості); системно-структурний (виявлення взаємозв’язків і взаємозалежностей глибинних та поверх-невих структур).Результати. Одна з найважливіших умов успішної перекладацької діяльності – максимально повне збереження змісту тексту в процесі перекладу. В умовах перетворення глибинної структури вихідного тексту на поверхневу структуру мовою перекладу перед перекладачем постає проблема вибору з безлічі допустимих поверхневих структур тієї єдиної, яка най-кращим чином здатна передати не тільки експліцитні, а й імпліцитні компоненти тексту. У процесі перекладу спеціальних галузевих текстів ця задача особливо актуальна. Так, ігнорування фонових знань про національно-культурні традиції ділового спілкування може привести до серйозного спотворення первинного сенсу тексту. А це своєю чергою може стати причиною невдачі ділових контактів. Концепція глибинних і поверхневих структур є досить корисним інструментом, який дає змогу успішно здійснювати перекладацьку діяльність при перекладі складних із семантичної і синтаксичної точок зору конструкцій. Збереження семантики вихідного тексту при максимально повному врахуванні імпліцитного контексту і фонових знань – першочергове завдання перекладача. Теорія глибинних і поверхневих структур є одним з інструментів, який здатен допомогти перекладачеві не тільки структурувати текст, але й максимально ефективно працювати з його семантикою, синтаксисом і фонологією.Суттєвою перекладацькою проблемою залишається пошук найбільш релевантного варіанту поверхневої структури, яка здатна зберегти глибинну структуру тексту-оригіналу з урахуванням усього масиву імпліцитних смислів. З огляду на це, тек-сти економічної спрямованості становлять певний інтерес, оскільки традиції ділового спілкування в різних культурах є свого роду додатковими фоновими знаннями, які необхідно враховувати у процесі перекладу.Висновки. Знання про особливості глибинних і поверхневих структур текстів тих чи інших жанрів дають пере-кладачеві змогу більш якісно здійснювати перекладацьку діяльність. Систематизація перекладацької діяльності в цьо-му контексті передбачає організацію роботи поетапно: спочатку аналізується поверхнева структура вихідного тексту, з використанням правил синтаксичних трансформацій перекладач описує глибинну структуру тексту, а потім з урахуван-ням специфіки мови перекладу переводить цю глибинну структуру в поверхневу структуру мови перекладу. Результати дослідження можуть бути використані в практичній перекладацькій діяльності для забезпечення більш чіткого уявлення про глибинну структуру і семантичної еквівалентності вихідного і цільового текстів. Результати дослідження сприяють удосконаленню практичних напрацювань щодо особливостей роботи з глибинними структурами перекладацьких текстів економічної спрямованості. Подальші перспективи дослідження можуть бути пов’язані з уточненням найбільш доціль-них у конкретних перекладацьких ситуаціях моделей трансформації глибинної структури вихідного тексту в поверхневу структуру тексту перекладу. Purpose. The paper intends to clarify basic provisions of the deep structure as a theoretical construct in the context of translation skills. The purpose of the article is also to identify the main difficulties in using the deep structures concept in the translation process and to determine the best way of addressing them.Methods. The following methods are used in the research process: analysis and synthesis (in determining the substantive characteristics of the concept “deep structure”); comparison (in studying models of transformation and their peculiarities in context of economic texts translating); systemic-structural (in identifying relationships between deep and surface structures).Results. One of the most important conditions for successful translation activities is the preservation of the content in translation. When transforming the deep structure of the source text into a surface structure in the target language, the translator is faced with the problem of choosing from the set of admissible surface structures the only one that is best able to convey not only explicit, but also implicit components of the text. This task is especially relevant when translating specialized industry texts. So, ignoring the background knowledge about the national and cultural traditions of business communication can lead to a serious distortion of the original meaning of the text. And this, in turn, can cause the failure of business contacts. The concept of deep and surface structures is a very useful tool for successfully translating complex semantic and syntactic constructions. Preservation of the original text semantics with maximum consideration of the implicit context and background knowledge is the first task of the translator. The theory of deep and surface structures is one of the tools that can help the translator not only structure the text, but also work as efficiently as possible with its semantics, syntax and phonology.Conclusions. Knowledge of the different genres text’s deep and surface structures peculiarities enables the translator to perform better translation activities. The systematization of translation activities in this context involves the organization of work in phases: first of all the source text surface structure is analyzed, then using the rules of syntactic transformations the translator describes the text deep structure, and then, taking into account the specifics of the translation language, translates this deep structure into the target language surface structure. The study results could be used in practical translation to provide a clearer understanding of the deep structure and to ensure semantic equivalence between the source and the target texts. The study results contribute to the improvement of practices, which are related to the peculiarities of working with deep structures of economic translations. Further prospects for the study could be related to the clarification of the most appropriate models in specific translation situations for transforming the underlying structure of the source text into a surface structure of the text.


Author(s):  
Jane A. Westfall ◽  
S. Yamataka ◽  
Paul D. Enos

Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) provides three dimensional details of external surface structures and supplements ultrastructural information provided by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Animals composed of watery jellylike tissues such as hydras and other coelenterates have not been considered suitable for SEM studies because of the difficulty in preserving such organisms in a normal state. This study demonstrates 1) the successful use of SEM on such tissue, and 2) the unique arrangement of batteries of nematocysts within large epitheliomuscular cells on tentacles of Hydra littoralis.Whole specimens of Hydra were prepared for SEM (Figs. 1 and 2) by the fix, freeze-dry, coat technique of Small and Màrszalek. The specimens were fixed in osmium tetroxide and mercuric chloride, freeze-dried in vacuo on a prechilled 1 Kg brass block, and coated with gold-palladium. Tissues for TEM (Figs. 3 and 4) were fixed in glutaraldehyde followed by osmium tetroxide. Scanning micrographs were taken on a Cambridge Stereoscan Mark II A microscope at 10 KV and transmission micrographs were taken on an RCA EMU 3G microscope (Fig. 3) or on a Hitachi HU 11B microscope (Fig. 4).


Author(s):  
Tokio Nei ◽  
Haruo Yotsumoto ◽  
Yoichi Hasegawa ◽  
Yuji Nagasawa

In order to observe biological specimens in their native state, that is, still containing their water content, various methods of specimen preparation have been used, the principal two of which are the chamber method and the freeze method.Using its recently developed cold stage for installation in the pre-evacuation chamber of a scanning electron microscope, we have succeeded in directly observing a biological specimen in its frozen state without the need for such conventional specimen preparation techniques as drying and metallic vacuum evaporation. (Echlin, too, has reported on the observation of surface structures using the same freeze method.)In the experiment referred to herein, a small sliced specimen was place in the specimen holder. After it was rapidly frozen by freon cooled with liquid nitrogen, it was inserted into the cold stage of the specimen chamber.


Author(s):  
N.J. Tao ◽  
J.A. DeRose ◽  
P.I. Oden ◽  
S.M. Lindsay

Clemmer and Beebe have pointed out that surface structures on graphite substrates can be misinterpreted as biopolymer images in STM experiments. We have been using electrochemical methods to react DNA fragments onto gold electrodes for STM and AFM imaging. The adsorbates produced in this way are only homogeneous in special circumstances. Searching an inhomogeneous substrate for ‘desired’ images limits the value of the data. Here, we report on a reversible method for imaging adsorbates. The molecules can be lifted onto and off the substrate during imaging. This leaves no doubt about the validity or statistical significance of the images. Furthermore, environmental effects (such as changes in electrolyte or surface charge) can be investigated easily.


Author(s):  
R. L. Hines

The importance of atom layer terraces or steps on platinum surfaces used for catalysis as discussed by Somorjai justifies an extensive investigation of the structure of platinum surfaces through electron microscopy at the atomic resolution level. Experimental and theoretical difficulties complicate the quantitative determination of platinum surface structures but qualitative observation of surface structures on platinum crystals is now possible with good experimental facilities.Ultrathin platinum crystals with nominal 111 orientation are prepared using the procedure reported by Hines without the application of a carbon backing layer. Platinum films with thicknesses of about ten atom layers are strong enough so that they can be mounted on grids to provide ultrathin platinum crystals for examination of surface structure. Crystals as thin as possible are desired to minimize the theoretical difficulties in analyzing image contrast to determine structure. With the current preparation procedures the crystals frequently cover complete openings on a 400 mesh grid.


Author(s):  
C. W. Price ◽  
E. F. Lindsey ◽  
R. M. Franks ◽  
M. A. Lane

Diamond-point turning is an efficient technique for machining low-density polystyrene foam, and the surface finish can be substantially improved by grinding. However, both diamond-point turning and grinding tend to tear and fracture cell walls and leave asperities formed by agglomerations of fragmented cell walls. Vibratoming is proving to be an excellent technique to form planar surfaces in polystyrene, and the machining characteristics of vibratoming and diamond-point turning are compared.Our work has demonstrated that proper evaluation of surface structures in low density polystyrene foam requires stereoscopic examinations; tilts of + and − 3 1/2 degrees were used for the stereo pairs. Coating does not seriously distort low-density polystyrene foam. Therefore, the specimens were gold-palladium coated and examined in a Hitachi S-800 FESEM at 5 kV.


1988 ◽  
Vol 31 (2) ◽  
pp. 156-165 ◽  
Author(s):  
P. A. Busby ◽  
Y. C. Tong ◽  
G. M. Clark

The identification of consonants in a/-C-/a/nonsense syllables, using a fourteen-alternative forced-choice procedure, was examined in 4 profoundly hearing-impaired children under five conditions: audition alone using hearing aids in free-field (A),vision alone (V), auditory-visual using hearing aids in free-field (AV1), auditory-visual with linear amplification (AV2), and auditory-visual with syllabic compression (AV3). In the AV2 and AV3 conditions, acoustic signals were binaurally presented by magnetic or acoustic coupling to the subjects' hearing aids. The syllabic compressor had a compression ratio of 10:1, and attack and release times were 1.2 ms and 60 ms. The confusion matrices were subjected to two analysis methods: hierarchical clustering and information transmission analysis using articulatory features. The same general conclusions were drawn on the basis of results obtained from either analysis method. The results indicated better performance in the V condition than in the A condition. In the three AV conditions, the subjects predominately combined the acoustic parameter of voicing with the visual signal. No consistent differences were recorded across the three AV conditions. Syllabic compression did not, therefore, appear to have a significant influence on AV perception for these children. A high degree of subject variability was recorded for the A and three AV conditions, but not for the V condition.


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