scholarly journals WHAT IS THE LENGTH OF A SNAKE?

2008 ◽  
pp. 1-3 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jesus A. Rivas ◽  
Rafeal E. Ascanio ◽  
Maria D. C. Munoz
Keyword(s):  
Large Range ◽  
Small Animals ◽  
Live Animal ◽  
Actual Length ◽  
Total Length ◽  
Large Animals ◽  
The Way

The way that herpetologists have traditionally measuredlive snakes is by stretching them on a ruler andrecording the total length (TL). However, due to the thinconstitution of the snake, the large number of intervertebraljoints, and slim muscular mass of most snakes,it is easier to stretch a snake than it is to stretch anyother vertebrate. The result of this is that the length ofa snake recorded is infl uenced by how much the animalis stretched. Stretching it as much as possible is perhapsa precise way to measure the length of the specimenbut it might not correspond to the actual length ofa live animal. Furthermore, it may seriously injure a livesnake. Another method involves placing the snake in aclear plexiglass box and pressing it with a soft materialsuch as rubber foam against a clear surface. Measuringthe length of the snake may be done by outlining itsbody with a string (Fitch 1987; Frye 1991). However, thismethod is restricted to small animals that can be placedin a box, and in addition, no indications of accuracy of thetechnique are given. Measuring the snakes with a fl exibletape has also been reported (Blouin-Demers 2003)but when dealing with a large animals the way the tapeis positioned can produce great variance on the fi nal outcome.In this contribution we revise alternative ways tomeasuring a snake and propose a method that offers repeatableresults. We further analyze the precision of thismethod by using a sample of measurements taken fromwild populations of green anacondas (Eunectes murinus)with a large range of sizes.

EMPTY BODY WEIGHTS, CARCASS WEIGHTS AND OFFAL PROPORTIONS IN BULLS AND STEERS OF DIFFERENT MATURE SIZE

1984 ◽  
Vol 64 (1) ◽  
pp. 53-57 ◽  
Author(s):  
S. D. M. JONES ◽  
R. E. ROMPALA ◽  
J. W. WILTON ◽  
C. H. WATSON
Keyword(s):  
Body Weight ◽  
Small Animal ◽  
High Energy ◽  
Carcass Weight ◽  
Small Animals ◽  
Beef Steers ◽  
Body Weights ◽  
Breed Crosses ◽  
Large Animals ◽  
Animal Size

Empty body weights, carcass weights and offal proportions were compared in 33 young beef bulls and 33 beef steers of different mature body size (35 small or mainly British breed crosses, 31 large or Continental crosses). All cattle were fed a high energy diet based on corn silage and high moisture corn from weaning to slaughter. Slaughter was carried out once 6 mm of fat had been attained at the 11/12th ribs, determined ultrasonically. Feed was removed 24 h and water 16 h prior to slaughter. The offal components were all weighed fresh and the alimentary components emptied of digesta. Bulls weighed 8.0% heavier (P < 0.05) than steers at slaughter, while large animals were 38.7% heavier (P < 0.0001) than small animals. Bulls and large animals had carcasses that dressed out 1.5% heavier than steers and small animals. To eliminate the effect of gutfill, carcass weights and offal components were expressed as a proportion of empty body weight. Bulls had a higher proportion of warm carcass weight and lower proportions of liver, spleen, heart, lungs, rumen, abomasum, large intestine and front feet relative to empty body weight than steers. Large animals had a greater proportion of warm carcass weight and hind feet, and a lower proportion of head, hide, liver, kidneys, omasum and small intestine relative to empty body weight than small animals. All castration by size interactions for liveweight, carcass weight, empty body weight and offal proportions were not significant. Castration and small animal size both increased the proportion of noncarcass parts relative to empty body weight in animals slaughtered at similar finish. Key words: Body, carcass, offal, bull, steer, maturity

Theoretical and empirical scaling patterns and topological homology in bone trabeculae.

1998 ◽  
Vol 201 (4) ◽  
pp. 573-590
Author(s):  
S M Swartz ◽  
A Parker ◽  
C Huo
Keyword(s):  
Body Size ◽  
Surface Area ◽  
Cancellous Bone ◽  
Structural Design ◽  
Theoretical Models ◽  
Small Animals ◽  
Bone Trabeculae ◽  
Large Animals ◽  
Vertebrate Skeleton ◽  
Area And Volume

Trabecular or cancellous bone is a major element in the structural design of the vertebrate skeleton, but has received little attention from the perspective of the biology of scale. In this study, we investigated scaling patterns in the discrete bony elements of cancellous bone. First, we constructed two theoretical models, representative of the two extremes of realistic patterns of trabecular size changes associated with body size changes. In one, constant trabecular size (CTS), increases in cancellous bone volume with size arise through the addition of new elements of constant size. In the other model, constant trabecular geometry (CTG), the size of trabeculae increases isometrically. These models produce fundamentally different patterns of surface area and volume scaling. We then compared the models with empirical observations of scaling of trabecular dimensions in mammals ranging in mass from 4 to 40x10(6)g. Trabecular size showed little dependence on body size, approaching one of our theoretical models (CTS). This result suggests that some elements of trabecular architecture may be driven by the requirements of maintaining adequate surface area for calcium homeostasis. Additionally, we found two key consequences of this strongly negative allometry. First, the connectivity among trabecular elements is qualitatively different for small versus large animals; trabeculae connect primarily to cortical bone in very small animals and primarily to other trabeculae in larger animals. Second, small animals have very few trabeculae and, as a consequence, we were able to identify particular elements with a consistent position across individuals and, for some elements, across species. Finally, in order to infer the possible influence of gross differences in mechanical loading on trabecular size, we sampled trabecular dimensions extensively within Chiroptera and compared their trabecular dimensions with those of non-volant mammals. We found no systematic differences in trabecular size or scaling patterns related to locomotor mode.

Analyzing a Yacht for Hydrodynamic Characteristics that Effect What Type of Sails and Rigs Will Work Best

1977 ◽  
Author(s):  
Robert E. Doyle
Keyword(s):  
Large Range ◽  
Hydrodynamic Characteristics ◽  
Term Selection ◽  
General Overview ◽  
General Terms ◽  
Basic Concepts ◽  
Input Variables ◽  
Existing Data ◽  
The Way

The purpose of this paper is to present a very general overview as to how basic concepts of aerodynamics and hydrodynamics can be utilized in the selection and trim of sails. I have used the term selection to go all the way back to the routes of designing and selecting a rig for a given boat. The paper introduces absolutely no data and, in fact, does not explore any existing data in detail. Its main purpose is to show that almost any decision on rig or sails on a sail boat is always a compromise of varying forces. Sometimes these compromises are conflicting dynamics of the hull and sails, other times the forces are man-made such as rule parameters. Perhaps I could have done a more scien­tific job by choosing just one set of parameters that are in conflict and explored these in great detail showing how a conclusion can be reached from all the varying inputs into one particular problem involving rig, sails or hull. This type of thorough analysis, which would obviously require more exacting research to prove the hypothesis once defined, is not my strength. Therefore, it would be inappropriate for me to do such an analysis. My strength is in actually applying a large range of sail­ing theory to actual on-the-water sailing conditions. What I hope to accomplish by this paper is to let sailors realize that when making a decision on a rig, a particu­lar sail, or how to trim a particular sail, they first must decide what they want to accomplish with the rig, sail or sail trim. They must think about it in general terms as to what direction they should take aerodynamically or hydrodynamically to get the forces they want to achieve. Then they must go about the task with the full realization that there is no preset answer and that they must be willing to experiment in order to hone in on the optimum. The input variables of the hydrodynamics of a pitching yacht going to weather in a moderate breeze that is constantly receding and increasing in velocity as well as direction defies simple solu­tions. Thus, the best compromise is usually the best solution.

scholarly journals Evolutionary cascades induced by large frugivores

2017 ◽  
Vol 114 (45) ◽  
pp. 11998-12002 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jedediah F. Brodie
Keyword(s):  
Tropical Forests ◽  
Fruit Size ◽  
Peninsular Malaysia ◽  
Fruit Color ◽  
Small Animals ◽  
Fruit Traits ◽  
Frugivorous Birds ◽  
Large Animals ◽  
Evolutionary Consequences ◽  
Morphologic Changes

Large, fruit-eating vertebrates have been lost from many of the world’s ecosystems. The ecological consequences of this defaunation can be severe, but the evolutionary consequences are nearly unknown because it remains unclear whether frugivores exert strong selection on fruit traits. I assessed the macroevolution of fruit traits in response to variation in the diversity and size of seed-dispersing vertebrates. Across the Indo-Malay Archipelago, many of the same plant lineages have been exposed to very different assemblages of seed-dispersing vertebrates. Phylogenetic analysis of >400 plant species in 41 genera and five families revealed that average fruit size tracks the taxonomic and functional diversity of frugivorous birds and mammals. Fruit size was 40.2–46.5% smaller in the Moluccas and Sulawesi (respectively), with relatively depauperate assemblages of mostly small-bodied animals, than in the Sunda Region (Borneo, Sumatra, and Peninsular Malaysia), with a highly diverse suite of large and small animals. Fruit color, however, was unrelated to vertebrate diversity or to the representation of birds versus mammals in the frugivore assemblage. Overhunting of large animals, nearly ubiquitous in tropical forests, could strongly alter selection pressures on plants, resulting in widespread, although trait-specific, morphologic changes.

scholarly journals Spearheads of Bear-Spears from the Collection of the Nizhny Novgorod State Historical and Architectural Museum-Reserve

2019 ◽  
Vol 18 (5) ◽  
pp. 146-153
Author(s):  
B. A. Ilyushin
Keyword(s):  
Long Range ◽  
Good Condition ◽  
17Th Century ◽  
Total Length ◽  
Decorative Element ◽  
Russian State ◽  
European Part Of Russia ◽  
Method Of Planting ◽  
Large Animals ◽  
Inventory Number

Purpose. This article introduces three samples of spearheads of long-shafted weapons from the collection of the Nizhny Novgorod State Historical and Architectural Museum-Reserve (Nizhny Novgorod, Russia). Long-range weapons being of a certain scientific interest, the samples of spearheads considered are important as they have not been described yet. In the course of our research, we have analyzed the features of their design in order to clarify the origin and time of their creation. Results. Two spearheads from the collection of the Nizhny Novgorod State Historical and Architectural Museum-Reserve came from a private collection of A. O. Karelin (1837–1906), and the third one from the funds of the Museum of Lyskovo. Their origin in those collections is unknown; however, museum workers have managed to date them to the 17th century. All the spearheads considered are in a good condition, with barely noticeable spots of rust. Obviously, they have new shafts, two of which are broken. All spearheads were manufactured from iron; belong to the sleeved type according to the method of planting on the shaft and to the group of lenticular according to the cross-section of the pen. The pens of the spearheads are of two types – elongated rhombic and elongated triangular. The spearheads’ feathers are decorated with rows of holes along the edge and two curls (sprouts) below the shoulders. All the spearheads have another decorative element, a so called “apple” on the neck of the pen, which was not a mandatory element of this type of spearheads. The elongated rhombic pens belong to the spearheads from the collection of the museum in Lyskovo and Karelin’s collection (spearheads No. 1–2). The spearhead No. 1 (inventory number GOM 11943. IM 1512) has the total length of 28.4 cm; the blade is 11 cm long and 4.7 cm wide at most. The biggest diameter of the sleeves measures 3.8 cm with the length of 13.6 cm. The spearhead No. 2 (inventory number GOM 7274-13. OR 451) has the total length of 34 cm; the blade is 17 cm long and 5.4 cm wide at most. The biggest diameter of the sleeves measures 3.8 cm with the length of 12.4 cm. The elongated triangular pen is from Karelin’s collection. The spearhead No. 3 (inventory number GOM 7274-10.OR 382) has the total length of 37 cm; the blade is 28.5 cm long and 5.5 cm wide at most. The biggest diameter of the sleeves measures 3.8 cm with the length of 12.3 cm. Conclusion. Three previously unknown spearheads have been introduced into scientific circulation. The analysis of the design features of these weapons allowed us to date them to the 17th century. The spearheads are attributed to the type “rogatina”, which was widespread in the Russian state being massive and big. Such long-range weapons were known as “bear-spear” and initially were used for hunting large animals. Such items are widely found in the European part of Russia and in Siberia, where they were brought by Russian pioneers.

scholarly journals Shear-sensitive adhesion enables size-independent adhesive performance in stick insects

2019 ◽  
Vol 286 (1913) ◽  
pp. 20191327 ◽  
Author(s):  
David Labonte ◽  
Marie-Yon Struecker ◽  
Aleksandra V. Birn-Jeffery ◽  
Walter Federle
Keyword(s):  
Body Weight ◽  
Adhesive Force ◽  
Whole Body ◽  
Small Animals ◽  
Shear Forces ◽  
Stick Insects ◽  
Adhesive Pads ◽  
The Difference ◽  
Large Animals ◽  
Adhesive Performance

The ability to climb with adhesive pads conveys significant advantages and is widespread in the animal kingdom. The physics of adhesion predict that attachment is more challenging for large animals, whereas detachment is harder for small animals, due to the difference in surface-to-volume ratios. Here, we use stick insects to show that this problem is solved at both ends of the scale by linking adhesion to the applied shear force. Adhesive forces of individual insect pads, measured with perpendicular pull-offs, increased approximately in proportion to a linear pad dimension across instars. In sharp contrast, whole-body force measurements suggested area scaling of adhesion. This discrepancy is explained by the presence of shear forces during whole-body measurements, as confirmed in experiments with pads sheared prior to detachment. When we applied shear forces proportional to either pad area or body weight, pad adhesion also scaled approximately with area or mass, respectively, providing a mechanism that can compensate for the size-related loss of adhesive performance predicted by isometry. We demonstrate that the adhesion-enhancing effect of shear forces is linked to pad sliding, which increased the maximum adhesive force per area sustainable by the pads. As shear forces in natural conditions are expected to scale with mass, sliding is more frequent and extensive in large animals, thus ensuring that large animals can attach safely, while small animals can still detach their pads effortlessly. Our results therefore help to explain how nature’s climbers maintain a dynamic attachment performance across seven orders of magnitude in body weight.

Influence of Temperature on Performance in Guinea Pigs

1957 ◽  
Vol 190 (3) ◽  
pp. 457-458 ◽  
Author(s):  
Charles G. Wilber
Keyword(s):  
Low Temperatures ◽  
Guinea Pigs ◽  
Peak Performance ◽  
Albino Rats ◽  
Small Animals ◽  
Influence Of Temperature ◽  
Influence Of Temperature On ◽  
Endocrine Factors ◽  
The Difference ◽  
Large Animals

Guinea pigs were forced to swim to total exhaustion in water at various temperatures. Small animals (400 gm) showed peak performance at about 40°C, large ones (1000 gm) at about 35°C. Large animals swam longer at low temperatures but shorter at high temperatures than did small ones. At 35°C all guinea pigs swam for an average of about 150 minutes. In general this species shows much less capacity for swimming than do albino rats. The difference may be related to diet or to endocrine factors.

Primary, secondary and tertiary syntypes and virtual lectotype designation in zoological nomenclature, with comments on the recent designation of a lectotype for Elephas maximus Linnaeus, 1758

Bionomina ◽  
2014 ◽  
Vol 7 (1) ◽  
pp. 45-64 ◽  
Author(s):  
Alain Dubois ◽  
André Nemésio ◽  
Roger Bour
Keyword(s):  
Molecular Data ◽  
Elephas Maximus ◽  
Zoological Nomenclature ◽  
International Code ◽  
Live Animal ◽  
Eighteenth And Nineteenth Centuries ◽  
The Way

The role of primary, secondary and tertiary syntypes in solving nomenclatural problems, especially those related to old nomina from the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, is discussed. The very useful but rarely implemented procedure of designating virtual lectotypes, i.e., specimens that can be traced as belonging to the original syntypic series but currently non-extant (e.g., lost, destroyed, misplaced, or originally being a live animal of which only an illustration remains), is here highlighted as potentially opening the way for a neotype designation that better suits stability in zoological nomenclature. This is particularly true when mixed syntypic series, i.e., those comprising specimens belonging to more than one species, are involved. We illustrate the advantages of this procedure by showing that a secondary syntype of Elephas maximus Linnaeus, 1758, although currently missing, would have been a better candidate to lectotype designation than the still available specimen actually selected recently as the lectotype of this species based on molecular data. We welcome the use of molecular data to solve nomenclatural problems, but point out that a thorough knowledge of the International Code of zoological Nomenclature is essential if the best decisions are to be taken.

The Christology of Wolfhart Pannenberg

1967 ◽  
Vol 3 (1) ◽  
pp. 369-376 ◽  
Author(s):  
G. G. O'Collins
Keyword(s):  
Large Range ◽  
The Past ◽  
Wolfhart Pannenberg ◽  
The Way

One of the most interesting works on Christology to appear in recent years is Wolfhart Pannenberg's Grundzüge der Christologie. The reviewer in the Scottish Journal of Theology could speak of it as ‘a theological thriller’ and ‘very satisfying on account of its erudition, constant confrontation with Roman and Protestant, German and non-German theologians of the past and present’. Certainly we have here a Christology based on a striking knowledge of Scripture, the Councils, the Fathers and a large range of theologians and philosophers, both ancient and modern. Its originality consists perhaps most of all in the way it understands Christ's role as Revealer.

scholarly journals Primates follow the ‘island rule’: implications for interpreting Homo floresiensis

2007 ◽  
Vol 3 (4) ◽  
pp. 398-400 ◽  
Author(s):  
Lindell Bromham ◽  
Marcel Cardillo
Keyword(s):  
Primate Species ◽  
Small Animals ◽  
Island Rule ◽  
Size Change ◽  
Island Endemic ◽  
Large Animals

When the diminutive skeleton of Homo floresiensis was found on the Indonesian island of Flores, it was interpreted as an island dwarf, conforming to the ‘island rule’ that large animals evolve smaller size on islands, but small animals tend to get larger. However, previous studies of the island rule have not included primates, so the extent to which insular primate populations undergo size change was unknown. We use a comparative database of 39 independently derived island endemic primate species and subspecies to demonstrate that primates do conform to the island rule: small-bodied primates tend to get larger on islands, and large-bodied primates get smaller. Furthermore, larger species undergo a proportionally greater reduction in size on islands.

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