INTEGRATING DIRECT EFFECTS AND TRAIT-MEDIATED INDIRECT EFFECTS USING A PROJECTION MATRIX MODEL

Top predators have effects that can ‘cascade down’ on lower trophic levels. Because of this cascading effect, it matters how many trophic levels are present. Predators are either ‘sit and wait’ or ‘active’. Wolves are top predators in temperate grasslands and can alter species composition of smaller-sized predators, prey, and woody and herbaceous plant species, either through direct effects or indirect effects (‘Ecology of Fear’). In human derived grasslands, invertebrate predators fill a similar ecological role as wolves. Migrating populations of herbivores tend to be more limited by food than non-migratory populations. The phenology and synchrony of births vary among prey species in a way that is consistent with an adaptation to predation. Precocious species have highly synchronous birth dates to satiate predators. Non-precocious species (‘hiders’) have asynchronous births. Results from studies that manipulate both predators and food support the hypothesis that bottom-up and top-down effects interact.

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Possible Traffic Safety Effects of the Implementation of Section Control in Hungary

Acta Technica Jaurinensis ◽

10.14513/actatechjaur.v13.n4.557 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 13 (4) ◽

pp. 309-323

Author(s):

Zsolt Sándor

Keyword(s):

Traffic Safety ◽

Indirect Effects ◽

Social Cost ◽

Cost Savings ◽

International Studies ◽

Direct Effects ◽

Implementation Cost ◽

Short Term ◽

Environmental Loads

This article presents the anticipated safety effects of the implantation of section control in Hungary. The proposed results were originated from international studies and the local circumstances. Effects are depending on the control coverage and the magnitude of the sanctions. Direct (short term benefits) and indirect effects (long term benefits) can be identified. Direct effects are the decreasing of accident numbers, while indirect effects are the decrease of other externalities of transport like environmental loads. Based on the results the implementation cost of the enforcement system is measureable with the proposed social cost savings come from the decreasing number of accidents.

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The Interaction of Reactions and Transport Part II: Combined Reactors and Exchangers

International Journal of Chemical Reactor Engineering ◽

10.2202/1542-6580.1198 ◽

2007 ◽

Vol 5 (1) ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Stuart W. Churchill

Keyword(s):

Indirect Effects ◽

Molecular Level ◽

Chemical Reactor ◽

Complex Behavior ◽

Geometrical Configuration ◽

Direct Effects ◽

Optimal Conditions ◽

Chemical Reactors ◽

And Performance ◽

Transport Part

The interactions between chemical reactions and transport may be divided into direct effects, for example on the molecular level, and indirect effects, for example those arising from the geometrical configuration of the integrated reactor/exchanger. Attention herein is focused on the latter, although in many instances the direct effects must be accounted for as well. Particular attention is given to the identification of behavior that does not arise in chemical reactors not connected to an exchanger or in exchangers not connected to a chemical reactor, as well as to optimal conditions and configurations of combined reactors and exchangers. Generalizations are difficult to formulate for such complex behavior and equipment, necessitating a primary reliance on illustrative examples. However, some general conclusions are drawn concerning the occurrence, identification, and performance of interactive designs.

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A generalist nematode destabilizes plant competition: no evidence for direct effects, but strong evidence for indirect effects on rhizobia abundance

New Phytologist ◽

10.1111/nph.17943 ◽

2021 ◽

Author(s):

Samantha A. Catella ◽

Castilleja Fallon Olmsted ◽

Shaniya H. Markalanda ◽

Connor J. McFadden ◽

Corlett W. Wood ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Strong Evidence ◽

Indirect Effects ◽

Plant Competition ◽

Direct Effects

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6. Remedies in EU Law: Direct Effects, Indirect Effects, State Liability, and Art 267 TFEU

10.1093/he/9780192897961.003.0006 ◽

2021 ◽

pp. 166-207

Author(s):

Nigel Foster

Keyword(s):

Indirect Effects ◽

Preliminary Ruling ◽

Direct Effects ◽

Eu Law ◽

Procedural Law ◽

National Courts ◽

State Liability ◽

Cover Art ◽

Direct Applicability ◽

The Eu

This chapter brings together a number of related issues that are indirectly linked to the preliminary ruling procedure under Art 267 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the EU (TFEU)—the vehicle by which the leading principles and remedies in EU law were developed by the Court of Justice; in particular, the means by which EU law could be enforced by individuals via the national courts, rather than by the Commission, or other institutions, or member states in direct actions before the CJEU. The discussions cover Art 267 TFEU; direct applicability and direct effects; state liability; and national procedural law and the system of remedies.

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Liquidity constraints, spillovers, and entrepreneurship: evidence from a cash transfer program

Small Business Economics ◽

10.1007/s11187-019-00178-1 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 55 (4) ◽

pp. 1131-1158

Author(s):

Rafael P. Ribas

Keyword(s):

Indirect Effect ◽

Indirect Effects ◽

Financial Constraints ◽

Liquidity Constraints ◽

Cash Transfer ◽

Direct Effects ◽

Transfer Program ◽

Liquidity Shocks ◽

Liquidity Shock

Abstract This paper exploits a liquidity shock from a welfare program in Brazil to investigate the role of financial constraints, in opposition to general equilibrium mechanisms, in explaining entrepreneurship. Previous research focuses exclusively on how liquidity changes recipients’ behavior through direct effects on reducing constraints. However, liquidity shocks may also produce spillovers from recipients to others and thereby indirectly affect entrepreneurial decisions. This paper presents a method for decomposing the liquidity shock into direct effects associated with relieving individual constraints, and indirect effects associated with spillovers to other individuals. Results suggest that the program, which assists 20 percent of Brazilian households, increased the number of small entrepreneurs by 10 percent. However, this increase is entirely driven by the indirect effect. Further tests suggest that this effect is associated with an increase in private transfers between households. Thus, entrepreneurship tends to respond more to the interaction between households than to financial constraints.

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