SARS-CoV-2 and Covid-19 Immunopathogenesis

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is now a global pandemic caused by the new severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Unlike other known coronaviruses, such as the Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV), SARS-CoV-2 reveals new clinical, immunological, and pathologic features. The lymphocyte depletion, macrophage and neutrophil hyperactivation, cytokine dysregulation, thrombophilia, delayed antiviral response, and immune exhaustion are key immunological findings linked to the clinical progression of this disease. Understanding and identifying the underlying immunological basis of COVID-19 is crucial to designing effective therapies. Here, we provide an overview of immunopathogenesis driven by SARS-CoV-2 after its interactions with the immune system.

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Comparison of Immune Response between SARS, MERS, and COVID-19 Infection, Perspective on Vaccine Design and Development

BioMed Research International ◽

10.1155/2021/8870425 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 2021 ◽

pp. 1-11

Author(s):

Hossein Ansariniya ◽

Seyed Mohammad Seifati ◽

Erfan Zaker ◽

Fateme Zare

Keyword(s):

Immune Response ◽

Immune System ◽

Middle East ◽

Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome ◽

Immune Responses ◽

Middle East Respiratory Syndrome ◽

Immune Stimulation ◽

Adaptive Immune Responses ◽

Adaptive Immune ◽

New Vaccines

Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS), Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS), and Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) infections are the three epidemiological diseases caused by the Coronaviridae family. Perceiving the immune responses in these infections and the escape of viruses could help us design drugs and vaccines for confronting these infections. This review investigates the innate and adaptive immune responses reported in the infections of the three coronaviruses SARS, MERS, and COVID-19. Moreover, the present study can trigger researchers to design and develop new vaccines and drugs based on immune system responses. In conclusion, due to the need for an effective and efficient immune stimulation against coronavirus, a combination of several strategies seems necessary for developing the vaccine.

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COVID-19: the epidemiology and treatment

British Journal of Hospital Medicine ◽

10.12968/hmed.2020.0580 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 81 (10) ◽

pp. 1-9

Author(s):

Liujing Qu ◽

Jinchun Li ◽

Hao Ren

Keyword(s):

Middle East ◽

Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome ◽

Mortality Rates ◽

Middle East Respiratory Syndrome ◽

Cytokine Storm ◽

Future Studies ◽

Treatment And Prevention ◽

Global Pandemic ◽

Deadly Disease ◽

Severe Lung

After initially emerging in late 2019, coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), has spread rapidly to cause a global pandemic. SARS-CoV-2 is a betacoronavirus that is closely related to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus and Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus, all of which can cause severe lung injury, respiratory distress and cytokine storm. While mortality rates associated with SARS-CoV-2 are lower than those associated with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus or Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus, it is more contagious and spreads more rapidly than these other viruses. This article summarises the epidemiology and potential options for treating COVID-19 to give a foundation for future studies of the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of this deadly disease.

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Hypothesis: Designation of Liposomal Scavenger System for Fighting against 2019-nCoV

Infectious Disorders - Drug Targets ◽

10.2174/1871526521666210615141036 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 21 ◽

Author(s):

Nooshin Bagherani ◽

Bruce R. Smoller

Keyword(s):

Septic Shock ◽

Immune System ◽

Middle East ◽

Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome ◽

Effective Treatment ◽

Organ Failure ◽

Severe Pneumonia ◽

Middle East Respiratory Syndrome ◽

The Family ◽

Novel Coronavirus

: 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV), also known as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) or COVID-19 virus, is a member of the family Coronaviridae, which is responsible for the current pandemic of disease COVID-19. It is the seventh member of the family Coronaviridae, which infects humans, after 229E, OC43, NL63, HKU1, SARS-CoV and Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV). Fever, dry cough and severe pneumonia are seen as common symptoms at the early stages of COVID-19. Some cases progress to acute respiratory stress syndrome, septic shock, organ failure, and death. The development of an effective treatment or vaccination for treating or preventing this lethal condition is an urgent need in order to fight this crisis. Up to now, some effective vaccines with different efficacy profiles have been introduced. Herein, we have theoretically designed a scavenger system for gathering 2019-nCoVs, breaking them, and re-introducing them to the immune system.

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Does the novel coronavirus 2019 like heart more than the other family members of coronaviruses?

Journal of Cardiovascular and Thoracic Research ◽

10.34172/jcvtr.2020.27 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 12 (2) ◽

pp. 156-157

Author(s):

Mohammad Mostafa Ansari Ramandi ◽

Mohammadreza Baay ◽

Nasim Naderi

Keyword(s):

Middle East ◽

Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome ◽

Family Members ◽

Middle East Respiratory Syndrome ◽

The Other ◽

The Novel ◽

The World ◽

Future Challenges ◽

Novel Coronavirus ◽

Coronavirus Infections

The disaster due to the novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) around the world has made investigators enthusiastic about working on different aspects of COVID-19. However, although the pandemic of COVID-19 has not yet ended, it seems that COVID-19 compared to the other coronavirus infections (the Middle East Respiratory Syndrome [MERS] and Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome [SARS]) is more likely to target the heart. Comparing the previous presentations of the coronavirus family and the recent cardiovascular manifestations of COVID-19 can also help in predicting possible future challenges and taking measures to tackle these issues.

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Penanggulangan Virus Covid – 19 melalui Penyaluran Handsanitizer dan Sabun Cuci Tangan Alami serta Penyemprotan Disenfektan di desa Ngale, Kecamatan Pilangkenceng, Kabupaten Madiun

Batoboh ◽

10.26887/bt.v6i1.1392 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 6 (1) ◽

pp. 10

Author(s):

Reza Kusuma Setyansah

Keyword(s):

Middle East ◽

Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome ◽

Middle East Respiratory Syndrome ◽

Sars Coronavirus

Coronavirus merupakan keluarga besar virus yang menyebabkan penyakit pada manusia, biasanya menyebabkan penyakit infeksi saluran pernapasan, mulai flu biasa hingga penyakit yang serius seperti Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) dan Sindrom Pernafasan Akut Berat/ Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS). Coronavirus jenis baru yang ditemukan pada manusia sejak kejadian luar biasa muncul di Wuhan Cina, pada Desember 2019, kemudian diberi nama Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-COV2), dan menyebabkan penyakit Coronavirus Disease-2019 (COVID-19). Salah satu cara gampang melakukan pencegahan terhadap penyebaran virus ini adalah dengan menggunakan Handsanitizer alami. Menurut Organisasi Kesehatan Dunia (WHO), Handsanitizer alami harus mengandung setidaknya 60% alkohol untuk bekerja secara efektif. Selain handsanitizer, dengan melalukan metode penyemprotan disenfektan menggunakan cairan disenfektan. Disenfektan merupakan bahan kimia yang berguna untuk mencegah pertumbuhan bakteri ataupun jasad renik pada permukaan benda mati. Pelaksanaan pengabdian kepada masyarakat mengadakan penyaluran handsanitizer dan sabun cuci tangan alami serta penyemprotan disenfektan di desa Ngale sebagai upaya pencegahan Covid-19. Metode dalam pelaksanaan kegiatan ini yaitu wawancara dan diskusi bersama kepala desa Ngale. Kegiatan ini diharapkan mampu menumbuhkan kesadaran pada masyarakat akan pentingnya menjaga kebersihan, salah satunya menjaga kebersihan tangan serta dapat memutus mata rantai penyebaran Covid-19 di desa Ngale Kec Pilangkenceng Kab Madiun.

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COVID-19: Need of the hour to revisit asymptomatic prevalence of coronavirus pandemic

Borneo Epidemiology Journal ◽

10.51200/bej.v1i1.2429 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 1 (1) ◽

pp. 1-4

Author(s):

Richard Avoi ◽

Syed Sharizman Syed Abdul Rahim ◽

Mohammad Saffree Jeffree ◽

Visweswara Rao Pasupuleti

Keyword(s):

Middle East ◽

Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome ◽

Respiratory Tract ◽

Middle East Respiratory Syndrome ◽

Control Measures ◽

Case Detection ◽

Viral Loads ◽

Early Stages ◽

Exponential Increase ◽

Asymptomatic Patients

Since the Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic unfolded in China (Huang et al., 2020) back in December 2019, thus far, more than five million people were infected with the virus and 333,401 death were recorded worldwide (WHO, 2020b). The exponential increase in number shows that COVID-19 spreads faster compared to Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) or Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS). A study (Zou et al., 2020) has shown that high viral loads of Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) are detected in symptomatic patients soon after the onset of symptoms, wherein the load content is higher in their nose than in their throat. Furthermore, the same study has revealed similar viral loads between symptomatic and asymptomatic patients. Therefore, these findings may suggest the possibility of COVID-19 transmission earlier before the onset of symptoms itself. In the early stages of the pandemic, the control measures carried out have focused on screening of symptomatic person; at the time, the whole world thought that the spread of SARS-Cov-2 would only occur through symptomatic person-to-person transmission. In comparison, transmission in SARS would happen after the onset of illness, whereby the viral loads in the respiratory tract peaked around ten days after the development of symptoms by patients (Peiris et al., 2003). However, case detection for SARS (i.e. screening of symptomatic persons) will be grossly inadequate for the current COVID-19 pandemic, thus requiring different strategies to detect those infected with SARS-CoV-2 before they develop the symptoms.

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A Review of the Virology of SARS-CoV-2

Spectrum: Science and Technology ◽

10.54290/spect/2020.v7.1.0009 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 7 (1) ◽

pp. 69-77

Author(s):

Aldonna Maria Susngi ◽

◽

Clara Ermine Sawian

Keyword(s):

Middle East ◽

Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome ◽

Causative Agent ◽

Middle East Respiratory Syndrome ◽

The Novel ◽

Highly Pathogenic ◽

Key Features

The novel severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), the causative agent of Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a β-coronavirus, which also includes the highly pathogenic severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) and Middle East respiratory syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-CoV). Emerging in December 2019 from Wuhan, China, it has spread worldwide resulting in a pandemic that has not ended till date. This review highlights some of the key features of the virology of SARS-CoV-2.

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Vitamin D and COVID-19: Insight on Mechanism and Implementation in Equatorial Countries

Journal Of The Indonesian Medical Association ◽

10.47830/jinma-vol.71.2-2021-354 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 71 (2) ◽

pp. 61-64

Author(s):

Indah Bachti Setyarini ◽

Nurul Ratna ◽

Ninik Mudjihartini

Keyword(s):

Vitamin D ◽

Immune System ◽

Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome ◽

Ultraviolet Radiation ◽

Limited Information ◽

Immunomodulatory Effects ◽

Immune Systems ◽

Adaptive Immune ◽

Global Pandemic ◽

Adaptive Immune Systems

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a global pandemic caused by Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection, affecting millions of people worldwide due to its ease of transmission. Despite limited information on effective therapeutic options, vitamin D has been regularly reported to exert beneficial immunomodulatory effects affecting both innate and adaptive immune systems. As it is synthesized in the skin under ultraviolet radiation, population living in equatorial countries are presumed to have adequate vitamin D, however several studies have shown otherwise. This article is aimed to give an insight on the different mechanisms by which vitamin D affects our immune system in COVID-19, as well as discussing correlation of having sunlight all year round by being near the equator towards vitamin D adequacy.

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Infections in Pregnancy With COVID-19 and Other Respiratory RNA Virus Diseases Are Rarely, If Ever, Transmitted to the Fetus: Experiences With Coronaviruses, Parainfluenza, Metapneumovirus Respiratory Syncytial Virus, and Influenza

Archives of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine ◽

10.5858/arpa.2020-0211-sa ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 144 (8) ◽

pp. 920-928 ◽

Cited By ~ 10

Author(s):

David A. Schwartz ◽

Amareen Dhaliwal

Keyword(s):

Respiratory Syncytial Virus ◽

Middle East ◽

Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome ◽

Pregnant Women ◽

Rna Viruses ◽

Middle East Respiratory Syndrome ◽

Intrauterine Transmission ◽

Fetal Infection ◽

Syncytial Virus ◽

Maternal Fetal Transmission

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the agent of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), is similar to 2 other coronaviruses, SARS-CoV and Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV), in causing life-threatening maternal respiratory infections and systemic complications. Because of global concern for potential intrauterine transmission of SARS-CoV-2 from pregnant women to their infants, this report analyzes the effects on pregnancy of infections caused by SARS-CoV-2 and other respiratory RNA viruses, and examines the frequency of maternal-fetal transmission with SARS-CoV-2, severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS), influenza, respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), parainfluenza (HPIV), and metapneumovirus (hMPV). There have been no confirmed cases of intrauterine transmission reported with SARS-CoV-2 or any other coronaviruses—SARS and MERS. Influenza virus, despite causing approximately 1 billion annual infections globally, has only a few cases of confirmed or suspected intrauterine fetal infections reported. Respiratory syncytial virus is an unusual cause of illness among pregnant women, and with the exception of 1 premature infant with congenital pneumonia, no other cases of maternal-fetal infection are described. Parainfluenza virus and hMPV can produce symptomatic maternal infections but do not cause intrauterine fetal infection. In summary, it appears that the absence thus far of maternal-fetal transmission of the SARS-CoV-2 virus during the COVID-19 pandemic is similar to other coronaviruses, and is also consistent with the extreme rarity of suggested or confirmed cases of intrauterine transmission of other respiratory RNA viruses. This observation has important consequences for pregnant women because it appears that if intrauterine transmission of SARS-CoV-2 does eventually occur, it will be a rare event. Potential mechanisms of fetal protection from maternal viral infections are also discussed.

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